NEW  ENjii' 


hawleyambI 


ilili 


®ije  ^.  ^.  PtU  pbrarg 


513144 


Date  Due 

'  ■  '■  i'; 

j                       1 

.i                       1 

.J 

_ 



K 

r-^ ^^ 

FORESTRY 
IN   NEW  ENGLAND 

A   HANDBOOK    OF 

EASTERN   FOREST  MANAGEMENT 


BY 
RALPH    CHIPMAN    I;I/VWLEY,    M.  F. 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR   OF   FORESTRY,   YALE   UNIVERSITY 
AND 

AUSTIN    FOSTER    HAWKS,    M.  F. 

STATE   FORESTER   OF   VERMONT   AND   PROFESSOR   OF   FORESTRY, 
UNIVERSITY   OF   VERMONT 


FIRST  EDITION 

FIRST   THOUSAND 


NEW  YORK 

JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS 

London:    CHAPMAN    &    HALL,    Limited 

1912 


M-^W^ 


Copyright,  1912, 

BY 

RALPH  C.   HAWLEY 

AND 

AUSTIN  F.  HAWES 


Stanbopc  iprcss 

H.GILSON    COMPAN 
BOSTON,  U.S.A. 


To 
HENRY   SOLON    GRAVES 

FORESTER    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

WITH    A    DEEP     SENSE     OF     OUR      PERSONAL     OBLIGATIONS     TO     HIM     AS 
OUR      PRECEPTOR     IN    THE     YALE      FOREST     SCHOOL     WHICH     HE 
ORGANIZED    AND     BUILT    UP     TO     RANK    AS     THE     FORE- 
MOST   SCHOOL    OF    FORESTRY    IN    THIS    COUNTRY, 
AND     IN     RECOGNITION     OF     HIS    SERVICES 
TO    AMERICAN     FORESTRY     AS     AN 
EDUCATOR,      WRITER    AND 
ADMINISTRATOR. 


"•""sisri^, 


SJSI 


PREFACE. 


Throughout  America  and  especially  New  England  there  has 
been  a  rapid  awakening  of  interest  in  forestry  during  the  past  few 
years.  The  disappearance  of  old  forests,  together  with  increased 
prices  of  lumber,  has  made  ready  converts  to  the  forestry 
propaganda  of  the  federal  and  state  governments;  but  up  to  the 
present  time  nearly  the  only  available  literature  on  the  subject 
is  in  the  form  of  government  bulletins.  There  are,  to  be  sure, 
a  number  of  good  books  on  the  trees  written  from  a  botanical 
standpoint,  and  several  books  dealing  with  forestry  in  a  general 
way,  besides  a  very  few  advanced  textbooks.  There  is  now 
such  widespread  interest  in  the  subject,  that  a  book  dealing 
with  the  specific  forestry  problems  of  New  England  will  not 
only  be  of  interest  to  the  nature  lover  but  of  real  assistance 
to  the  land  owner  who  wishes  to  adopt  approved  methods  of 
forest  culture,  or  to  the  student  of  forestry.  Books  are  legend 
dealing  with  specific  agricultural  problems,  and  it  is  intended 
that  this  work  shall  be  for  the  woodland  owner  what  these  are 
for  the  agriculturist.  Every  year  more  people  are  moving  from 
the  cities  and  acquiring  country  places.  Many  owners  of  this 
class  cannot  afford  their  personal  time  for  farm  supervision,  and, 
without  this  supervision  of  the  owner,  farming  is  apt  to  be  too 
expensive.  Forestry  particularly  appeals  to  this  class  of  owners 
because  it  requires  less  frequent  attention  than  any  other  land 
culture. 

It  is  gratifying  to  find  that  the  farmers  themselves  are  taking 
up  forestry  in  the  same  practical  way  in  which  they  are  accus- 
tomed to  handle  other  problems,  and  the  authors  frequently 
have  been  asked  by  farmers  to  recommend  some  good  book  on 
forestry.  Practical  problems,  such  as  the  planting  of  an  old 
hill  pasture  to  pine,   or  the  advisability  of  pruning  pine  and 


Vi  PREFACE 

spruce;  the  proper  treatment  of  a  sugar  orchard, — these  and 
many  similar  questions  are  constantly  being  asked  by  the  up- 
to-date  farmer. 

Lumbermen  also  are  becoming  interested  in  forestry,  .and, 
while  they  have  not  yet  to  any  extent  adopted  modern  methods 
of  cutting,  this  is  largely  due  to  unfavorable  conditions  and 
ignorance  of  such  methods. 

In  preparing  this  book  the  authors  have  been  governed 
by  a  twofold  purpose:  first,  by  the  desire  to  present  a  book 
which  might  be  of  practical  assistance  to  all  classes  of  land 
owners  in  the  East;  and  second,  to  produce  a  textbook  treating 
of  forestry  in  New  England.  The  latter  is  greatly  needed, 
especially  in  the  various  agricultural  colleges  where  courses 
in  forestry  are  given,  and  where  it  is  essential  that  thorough 
instruction  in  the  forest  problems  of  the  northeastern  United 
States  be  furnished.  There  is  even  a  wider  field  for  a  book 
dealing  with  a  definite  section  of  the  country,  so  arranged  as 
to  serve  as  a  handbook  for  owners  of  woodland  in  the  section 
treated.  It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  authors  thoroughout  to 
present  the  material  in  the  simplest  and  least  technical  form 
possible,  with  the  view  of  making  everything  clear  to  persons 
not  familiar  with  forestry. 

The  book  is  arranged  in  two  parts :  one  dealing  with  methods 
and  principles  of  forestry  in  general,  the  second  treating  in 
detail  with  the  forests  of  New  England.  While  it  is  written 
with  special  reference  to  New  England,  the  book  has  a  much 
wider  field  of  direct  application.  Forest  conditions  similar  to 
those  in  portions  of  New  England  prevail  over  a  large  part  of 
New  York  and  New  Jersey,  in  Pennsylvania,  and  also  in  south- 
eastern Canada. 

Part  I  is  intended  to  furnish  the  woodland  owner  with  a 
brief  survey  of  the  whole  field  of  forestry,  and  to  give  him  suffi- 
cient knowledge  to  rightly  understand  and  be  able  to  carry 
out  the  treatment  recommended  in  Part  II  for  his  forest  land. 
The  subjects  in  Part  I  are  too  comprehensive  to  be  fully  covered 
in  one  volume.     In  many  cases  the  presentation  here  will  be 


PREFACE  Vii 

sufficient,  but  if  a  complete  discussion  is  needed  various  more 
technical  works  restricted  to  a  single  subject  should  be  consulted. 
For  example,  two  books  by  Graves,  "  Forest  Mensuration  "  and 
"  Principles  of  Handling  Woodlands,"  cover  mainly  the  three 
subjects  "  Silvicultural  Systems,"  "  Timber  Estimating  "  and 
"  The  Growth  of  Trees  and  Forests,"  which  are  here  included 
in  three  chapters. 

As  a  textbook,  then,  for  the  post-graduate  forest  schools  giving 
the  highest  grade  of  instruction,  this  book  will  have  a  greater 
value  for  its  detailed  discussion  of  New  England  forests,  than 
for  the  portion  dealing  with  general  forestry.  But  it  is  hoped 
that,  for  numerous  undergraduate  forest  schools  giving  a  slightly 
lower  grade  of  instruction,  all  portions  of  the  book  will  prove 
useful. 

The  publications  of  the  United  States  Forest  Service  relating 
to  New  England  topics,  as  well  as  those  issued  by  the  Forestry 
Departments  of  the  different  New  England  States,  have  been 
freely  consulted,  and  much  of  the  information  which  they  con- 
tain has  been  incorporated  in  these  pages. 

Free  use  has  also  been  made  of  various  books  dealing  with 
the  subjects  treated  in  these  chapters.  Among  them  are  the 
following:  "  EQstory  of  the  Lumber  Industry  in  America"  by 
Defebaugh;  "Studies  in  Forestry"  by  Nisbet;  "Principles  of 
Handling  Woodlands"  and  "Forest  Mensuration"  by  Graves; 
"A  Textbook  of  Botany"  by  Strasburger  Schenck,  Noli  and 
Schimper;  "  Handbook  of  Trees  of  the  Northern  States  and 
Canada"  by  Hough;  and  various  articles  in  Forestry  Quarterly 
too  numerous  to  mention. 

All  the  tables  in  the  appendix,  with  the  exception  of  certain 
log  rules  and  several  tables  taken  from  a  "  Manual  for  Northern 
Woodsmen  "  by  Prof.  Austin  Gary,  have  been  secured  from  state 
or  federal  forest  service  publications.  In  connection  with  each 
table  acknowledgment  is  made  of  the  source  from  which  it  was 
obtained. 

The  sketches  and  a  majority  of  the  pictures  are  original  with 
the  authors,  although  a  large  number  were  secured  from  other 


VUl  PREFACE 

sources.     Wherever  a  picture  was  not  taken  by  the  authors  its 
origin  is  stated  beneath  the  picture. 

In  conclusion,  the  authors  wish  to  render  acknowledgment 
to  the  many  friends  who  have  assisted  with  helpful  suggestions 
in  the  preparation  of  this  book. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

PART  I.     General  Forestry  i 

Chapter  I.     Silvics i 

Forest  Types 8 

Pure  and  Mixed  Stands lo 

Coppice  and  High  Forests 12 

Even  and  Uneven-aged  Forests 14 

High  Forest  Forms 15 

Coppice  Forms 16 

Composite  Forms 16 

Chapter  II.     Silvicultural  Systems 17 

I.    Systems  depending  on  Reproduction  by  Seed 17 

Selection  System ' 17 

Clear  Cutting  Systems 20 

Clear  Cutting  with  Artificial  Reproduction 21 

Clear  Cutting  with  Natural  Reproduction 22 

Clear  Cutting  the  Whole  Stand 22 

Reserving  Blocks  of  Trees 22 

Reserving  Scattered  Seed  Trees 24 

Reserving  Thrifty  Standards 25 

Clear  Cutting  in  Strips 26 

Clear  Cutting  in  Patches 27 

The  Shelterwood  System 27 

n.   Systems  depending  on   Reproduction   Wholly  or  Partly  from 

Sprouts 31 

Simple  Coppice 32 

Coppice  with  Standards 33 

Pole-wood  Coppice 35 

Chapter  III.     Silvicultural   Characteristics   of  the    Important 

New  England  Trees 37 

Wb'te  Pine 37 

Red  Pine 41 

Pitch  Pine 42 

Scotch  Pine 43 

Red  Spruce 45 

Norway  Spruce 47 

ix 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Balsam  or  Fir 48 

Hemlock ^g 

Tamarack 50 

European  Larch ^  i 


Arborvitae. 


52 


Juniper 52 

Sugar  Maple 53 

Soft  Maple 54 


Yellow  Birch , 


54 


Paper  Birch ^^ 

Gray  Birch e6 


Beech 


57 


White  Ash 58 

Basswood 58 

Poplar 59 

Chestnut 60 

White  and  Red  Oaks 62 

Tulip  Tree 63 

Chapter  IV.     Forest  Planting  and  Seeding 65 

Chapter  V.     Improvement  Cuttings 74 

Cleanings 74 

Liberation  Cuttings 76 

Thinnings 7q 

Damage  Cuttings gi 

Schedule  of  Improvement  Cuttings g2 

Methods  of  Controlling  Cuttings g3 

Pruning g5 

Chapter  VI.     Injuries  from  Animals g7 

Chapter  VII.     Forest  Insects  and  Fungi loi 

Insects loi 

White  Pine  Weevil loi 

Pine  Bark  Aphid 103 

Spruce  Destroying  Beetle 105 

Spruce  Budworm 106 

Gipsy  Moth 108 

Brown-tail  Moth no 

Larch  Sawfly m 


Elm  Leaf  Beetle . 


113 


Forest  Tent  Caterpillar 114 

June  Bug 116 

Fungi 118 

Chestnut  Bark  Disease 118 

Trametes  pini 122 


CONTENTS  XI 

PAGE 

Polyporus  schweinitzii 123 

White  Pine  Blister  Rust 124 

White  Heart  Rot 126 

White  Pine  BHght 129 


Chapter  VIII.     Forest  Fires. 


Kinds  of  Fires  and  Damage  done 131 

Causes  of  Fires 136 

Fire  Prevention 138 

Fire  Lines ^42 

Roads  and  Trails 146 

Extinguishing  Fires 146 

Estimating  the  Damage  done  by  Forest  Fires 152 

Chapter  IX.     Timber  Estimating  and  Valuation 156 

Estimating  Timber  on  Small  Woodlots iS7 

Estimating  Timber  on  Large  Woodlots 161 

Estimating  Timber  on  Large  Forest  Tracts 161 

The  Money  Value  of  Standing  Timber 165 

Chapter  X.     Growth  of  Trees  and  Forests , 171 

Growth  of  Trees 171 

Age  of  Trees 172 

Diameter  Growth i74 

Height  Growth i7S 

Volume  Growth 176 

Growth  of  Stands : 178 

Age  of  Stands 178 

Diameter  Growth ^79 

Height  Growth ^79 

Volume  Growth i79 

PART  II.     New  England  Forests  and  Their  Management 183 

Chapter  XI.      The  Original  Forests  and  Their  Early  Develop- 
ment   183 

Chapter  XII.    Present  Forest  Conditions 196 

How  to  find  Information  Applicable  to  a  Particular  Tract  199 

Chapter  XIII.     The  Spruce  Region 2cx) 

General  Considerations 200 

Forest  Types 203 

Swamp 2°5 

Spruce  Flat 206 

Hardwood 208 

Spruce  Slope 209 


Xll  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Birch  and  Poplar 2 1  r 

Old  Field 215 

Methods  of  Handling  the  Forest 216 

Spruce  Slope 217 

Spruce  Flat 220 

Swamp 222 

Hardwood 223 

Old  Field  Spruce 226 

Birch  and  Poplar 228 

Planting 231 

Avoiding  Waste  in  the  Woods 232 

Logging  Methods 235 

Market  Conditions 242 

Industries 243 

Pulpwood 243 

Lumber  Industry .  .      245 

Special  Woodworking  Industries 248 

Summer  Resort  Business 249 

Character  of  the  Land  and  Timber  Ownership 251 

Forest  Protection 


Forest  Fires . 


253 
254 


Methods  of  Fire  Protection 257 

Fighting  Fires 261 

Protection  against  Grazing  Animals 262 

Protection  against  Insects 262 

Protection  against  Fungi 263 

Watershed  Protection 263 

Summary 264 

Chapter  XIV.     The  Northern  Hardwoods  Region 265 

General  Considerations 265 

Forest  Types 269 

Hardwood 269 

Swamp 272 

Birch  and  Poplar 272 

Old  Field  Hardwoods 273 

Old  Field  Conifers 274 

Methods  of  Handling  the  Forest 276 

Hardwood 277 

Swamp , 283 

Birch  and  Poplar 283 

Old  Field  Hardwoods 284 

Old  Field  Conifers 285 

Logging  Methods 285 

Market  Conditions 287 

Industries 288 


CONTENTS  Xlll 

PAGE 

Lumber  Industry 288 

Maple  Sugar  Industry 289 

Character  of  the  Land  and  Timber  Ownership 290 

Forest  Protection 291 

Forest  Fires 291 

Methods  of  Fire  Protection 292 

Protection  against  Grazing  Animals 293 

Protection  against  Insects  and  Fungi 295 

Watershed  Protection 295 

Summary 295 

Chapter  XV.     The  White  Pine  Region 296 

General  Considerations 296 

Forest  Types 299 

Hemlock 300 

Pitch  Pine 30i 

White  Cedar  Swamp 301 

Pure  White  Pine 303 

Pine  and  Inferior  Hardwoods 3°^ 

Mixed  Hardwoods 3^1 

Soft  Maple  Swamp 312 

Waste  Land 312 

Methods  of  Handling  the  Forest 3^3 

Hemlock 3  H 

White  Cedar  Swamp 3^6 

Pitch  Pine 316 

Pure  White  Pine 318 

Pine  and  Inferior  Hardwoods 323 

Mixed  Hardwoods 324 

Soft  Maple  Swamp 325 

Waste  Land 325 

Logging  Methods 327 

Market  Conditions 328 

Industries 329 

Ownership  of  Woodlands 332 

Forest  Protection 332 

Forest  Fires 332 

Methods  of  Fire  Protection 335 

Methods  of  Fighting  Fires 339 

Protection  against  Grazing  Animals    339 

Protection  against  Insects  and  Fungi 34° 

Watershed  Protection 34i 

Summary 34i 

Chapter  XVI.     The  Sprout  Hardwoods  Region 342 

General  Considerations 342 

Forest  Types ■ 346 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Mixed  Hardwoods 346 

Hemlock 348 

Hardwood  Swamp 350 

Cedar  Swamp 351 

White  Pine 351 

Old  Field 351 

Methods  of  Handling  the  Forest 354 

Mixed  Hardwoods 356 

Hemlock 359 

Hardwood  Swamp 360 

Cedar  Swamp  and  White  Pine 36 1 

Old  Field 361 

Logging  Methods 362 

Market  Conditions 364 

Industries 364 

Ownership  of  Woodlands 366 

Forest  Protection 367 

Forest  Fires 367 

Methods  of  Fire  Frotection 369 

Methods  of  Fighting  Pires 371 

Protection  against  Grazing  Animals 371 

Protection  against  Insects  and  Fungi 372 

Watershed  Protection 372 

Summary " .  .  373 

Chapter  XVII.     The  Progress  of  Forestry  in  New  England  . . .  374 

Forest  Administration 379 

Connecticut , 379 

Administration 379 

Fire  Service 379 

Educational  Work 380 

State  Forests 381 

State  Nursery 383 

Taxation 383 

Massachusetts 384 

Administration 384 

Fire  Service 384 

Educational  Work 385 

State  Forests 386 

State  Nursery 386 

Forest  Taxation 386 

Control  of  Gipsy  and  Brown-tail  Moths 388 

Rhode  Island 389 

Administration 389 

Fire  Service 389 

Educational  Work 390 


CONTENTS  XV 

PAGE 

State  Forests 39i 

Taxation 39^ 

Control  of  the  Gipsy  and  Brown-tail  Moths 391 

Vermont 39^ 

Administration 391 

Fire  Service 392 

Educational  Work 394 

State  Forests 394 

State  Nursery 395 

Taxation 395 

New  Hampshire 39^ 

Administration 396 

Fire  Service 39^ 

Educational  Work 398 

State  Forests 39^ 

State  Nursery 399 

Taxation 399 

Maine 399 

Administration 399 

Fire  Service 4°° 

Educational  Work 402 

State  Forests .• 402 

Insects 403 

Forestry  Practice 403 

Lands  under  State  Ownership 403 

Lands  under  Corporate  and  Private  Ownership 404 

Chapter  XVIII.     The  Yield  to  be  Expected  from  New  England 

Forests  under  Proper  Management 408 

Appendix 417 

Forest  Fire  Statistics 417 

Bibliography 420 

Tables 426 

Log  Rules 427 

Volume  Tables 438 

Growth  of  Individual  Trees 464 

Yield  Tables 466 

Index 475 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


PART    I. 
GENERAL   FORESTRY. 

CHAPTER    I. 
SILVICS. 

In  any  study  of  forests  over  a  wide  range  of  country,  as  a  whole 
continent,  it  must  be  apparent  that  climate  determines  the 
character  of  the  forest  just  as  it  affects  the  growth  of  agricultural 
crops  in  certain  regions  or  belts.  In  a  small  region,  such  as  New 
England,  the  climatic  factors  are  less  noticeable,  but  cannot  be 
overlooked. 

The  average  temperature  of  a  region  is  of  less  importance  in 
determining  the  range  of  different  trees  than  the  lowest  and 
highest  extremes  of  temperature.  In  these  extremes  we  have 
an  explanation  of  the  inability  of  the  eucalyptus  of  southern 
Cahfornia  to  live  in  New  England,  and  of  the  fact  that  the  canoe 
birch,  although  growing  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  does 
not  extend  as  far  south  as  Long  Island  Sound.  In  a  less  notice- 
able way  it  is  probably  the  extreme  cold  of  winter  which  limits 
the  chestnut  to  southern  New  England  and  the  region  farther 
south.  Aside  from  this  matter  of  extremes  it  is  not  so  much  the 
winter's  cold  that  is  injurious  to  species,  as  the  late  frosts  in 
spring  when  the  young  leaves  and  shoots  are  still  tender,  and  the 
early  frosts  of  the  autumn  before  the  summer's  growth  has 
sufficiently  hardened  to  withstand  the  cold.  The  late  frosts  of 
the  spring  of  1910  killed  back  the  new  growth  of  pine  and  fir 
in  northern  Vermont. 


2  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

Besides  temperature  there  are  other  chmatic  factors  influenc- 
ing tree  growth.  It  has  been  found,  for  example,  that  the 
southern  limits  of  forest  trees  are  mainly  determined  by  the 
quantity  and  the  regularity  of  the  rainfall  during  summer. 
Taken  as  a  whole,  broadleaf  trees  consume  on  the  average  about 
ten  times  as  much  water  as  conifers,  and,  owing  to  the  light 
foliage  of  pine,  this  species  requires  much  less  soil  moisture  than 
spruce  or  fir.  The  lack  of  rain  for  even  two  or  three  days  may  be 
fatal  to  young  seedlings.  White  pine  plantations  established  two 
years  previously  were  badly  killed  out  by  the  prolonged  drought 
and  hot  weather  of  191 1.  With  age  and  development  of  the 
root  system  the  ability  of  the  tree  to  resist  drought  increases. 
A  mature  tree  with  the  assistance  of  its  reserve  supplies  of  water 
can  withstand  a  drought  of  several  months'  duration.  Precipita- 
tion outside  of  the  growing  season  is  also  valuable,  in  thoroughly 
wetting  the  soil,  because  during  the  growing  season  when  the 
trees  are  in  foliage  the  soil  is  seldom  thoroughly  wet. 

Aside  from  these  climatic  factors,  heat  and  rainfall,  which 
influence  the  general  distribution  of  forests,  the  factors  most 
important  to  individual  tree  growth  are  light  and  soil  moisture, 
and  to  a  lesser  extent  the  physical  and  chemical  character  of  the 
soil.  Each  genus,  and  in  some  respects  each  species,  reaches  its 
best  development  under  a  certain  set  of  conditions  of  soil, 
climate,  etc.,  called  its  optimum,  and  varies  whenever  found 
under  different  conditions.  Since  topography,  exposure,  and 
altitude  affect  these  factors,  they  must  also  be  taken  into  account. 
Near  their  northern  limits  of  distribution  all  trees  ascend  the 
mountains  to  a  greater  height  on  the  southern  than  on  the 
northern  sides,  because  of  warmth  requirements. 

Trees  derive  most  of  their  nourishment  from  the  carbonic 
acid  of  the  atmosphere,  but  they  depend  upon  the  soil  for  water 
and  mineral  supplies;  these  can  only  be  taken  up  when  held  in 
solution  by  the  soil.  Water  is  a  chief  essential  of  tree  growth, 
part  of  it  being  retained  in  the  wood.  Greenwood  often  contains 
as  much  as  50  per  cent  by  weight  of  water.  Water  in  the  plant 
serves  as  a  carrier  for  the  minerals  (the  salts,  oxides,  etc.),  which, 


SILVICS  3 

being  non-volatile,  remain  in  the  plant  after  the  water  is  given 
off.  The  process  of  taking  up  minerals  in  solution  through  the 
roots,  of  depositing  these  minerals,  and  of  giving  off  water  from 
the  leaves  is  called  transpiration;  this  is  one  of  the  leading 
features  of  plant  life.  Trees  of  normal  size  lose  by  this  process 
from  lo  to  25  gallons  of  water  daily,  and  it  has  been  estimated 
that  a  large  oak  with  700,000  leaves  gives  off  244,000  pounds  of 
water  in  the  five  months  from  June  to  November,  or  an  average 
of  25  tons  a  month  —  nearly  one  ton  a  day.  Transpiration  is 
greater  in  the  daytime  than  in  the  night,  and  leaves  exposed  to 
the  sun  transpire  from  three  to  ten  times  as  much  water  as  those 
that  are  shaded.  There  has  not  yet  been  developed  any  very 
satisfactory  theory  explaining  the  movement  of  water  to  the 
top  of  a  high  tree.  It  is  known  that  the  minute  root  hairs  at  the 
ends  of  the  roots  fasten  themselves  to  the  soil  particles  and  with- 
draw water  from  them  even  when  they  appear  dry;  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  transpiration  current,  which  flows  through  the 
wood  to  the  leaves,  is  forced  up  by  a  combination  of  atmospheric 
and  root  pressure  aided  by  osmotic  force  ^  and  capillarity.  As 
has  been  said,  the  conifers  are  more  moderate  in  their  demands 
on  water  than  the  broad-leaved  genera.  This  is  the  reason  why 
sand  plains,  such  as  those  of  Cape  Cod,  can  support  the  pine. 
The  water  table  is  always  found  to  be  farther  removed  from  the 
surface  of  the  ground  under  forest  than  outside  it  or  under  a  cut- 
over  forest;  under  old  forests  it  is  lower  than  under  young 
stands.  Seedhngs  spring  up  in  a  forest  when  the  roots  of  the 
adjoining  trees  are  cut  through,  thus  allowing  the  water  table  to 
come  nearer  the  surface.  From  the  illustration  of  the  oak 
mentioned  above  it  will  be  readily  realized,  in  dry  seasons 
especially,  that  the  amount  of  water  available  per  tree  might 
well  be  the  controlling  factor  influencing  growth  or  life  itself. 
Forests  transpire  more  moisture  than  other  vegetation  under 
the  same  conditions.  Any  deficit  caused  by  excess  of  transpira- 
tion over  precipitation  is  necessarily  made  up  by  water  from  the 

1  See  "A  Text  Book  of  Botany,"  Part  I,  Sect.  II,  by  Strasburger,  Schenck, 
Noll,  and  Schimper. 


4  FORESTRY   IN   NEW    ENGLAND 

open.  Other  things  being  equal  and  leaving  the  surface  out 
of  account,  the  soil  under  a  mature  forest  is  drier  than  in  the 
open.  Thus  seedlings  grown  in  the  open  get  more  moisture  in 
a  dry  season  than  under  large  trees,  but.  on  the  other  hand,  the 
intense  heat  in  the  open  may  more  than  counterbalance  the 
greater  supply  of  water. 

The  chief  element  of  dry  wood  is  carbon,  which  forms  about 
one-half  the  dry  weight  of  plants.  This  element  is  entirely 
absorbed  from  the  carbon  dioxide  of  the  atmosphere  through 
the  process  called  assimilation.  As  there  are  only  two  grams  of 
carbon  in  10,000  Hters  of  air,  one  tree  with  a  dry  weight  of  5000 
kilograms  requires  about  1 2  million  cubic  yards  of  air  to  furnish 
the  carbon.  But  for  the  fact  that  the  air  is  being  constantly 
resupplied  with  carbon  exhaled  by  animals  and  poured  forth 
from  factories  and  chimneys  these  figures  would  seem  startling. 
The  process  of  assimilation,  or  the  taking  of  carbon  from  the 
carbon  dioxide,  can  only  be  carried  on  by  the  chlorophyll  or  green 
bodies  in  the  leaves,  by  the  action  of  sunlight,  and  a  definite 
amount  of  heat.  The  first  products  of  assimilation  are  carbo- 
hydrates, either  in  solution  or  as  starch  grains.  The  process 
ceases  at  night  and  the  starch  grains  are  dissolved  and  pass  out 
of  the  cell.  The  surplus  products  that  are  not  needed  at  once 
are  stored.  This  surplus  is  greatest  at  the  end  of  the  growing 
season,  and  upon  its  amount  depends  all  growth  of  the  next  year 
either  of  mother-plant  or  offspring  in  germinating  seed.  This 
material  is  stored  in  the  form  of  starch  or  sugars  in  the  embryo 
of  the  seed,  in  tubers,  bulbs,  roots,  and  medullary  rays  of  the 
wood. 

All  trees  require  a  certain  amount  of  light  in  order  to  carry 
out  this  work  of  assimilation.  With  regard  to  their  ability  to 
bear  shade,  marked  differences  occur  among  the  various  species 
of  trees,  so  that  they  may  be  classed  as:  light-demanding  or 
intolerant  trees,  such  as  larch,  red  cedar,  and  gray  birch;  and 
shade-enduring  or  tolerant  species,  such  as  beech,  spruce,  hem- 
lock. Between  these  is  a  class  of  intermediate  trees,  including 
white  pine  and  chestnut.     The  demands  of  various  species  for 


SILVICS  5 

light  may  be  gauged  by  the  general  density  of  the  foliage  of  the 
crown  and  the  capacity  of  overshadowed  twigs  to  retain  life. 

Until  very  recently  it  was  thought  by  foresters  that  the  amount 
of  light  to  which  a  tree  has  access  determines  its  growth  more 
than  any  other  factor.  Recent  investigations  of  soil  moisture 
indicate  that  this  is  an  even  more  important  factor,  so  that 
while  it  was  customary  formerly  to  attribute  increased  growth, 
after  thinning  a  forest,  to  more  light,  it  now  appears  that  it  is 
due  as  much  to  the  increased  supply  of  water  available  for  the 
roots. 

The  physical  qualities  of  soil  especially  as  related  to  ability 
to  retain  moisture,  are  more  important  than  the  chemical  con- 
stitutents,  for  almost  all  soils  are  chemically  able  to  bear  trees. 
The  root  systems  of  various  species  vary  greatly  with  regard 
to  shape  and  the  depth  to  which  they  reach;  but  even  shallow- 
rooting  kinds  derive  advantage  when  the  soil  over  which  they 
grow  is  deep,  owing  to  the  greater  fertility  within  easy  reach 
of  their  roots.  Some  species,  like  the  oak,  have  a  strong  tap 
root;  others,  such  as  beech  and  birch,  develop  strong  side 
roots,  but  no  tap  root;  and  still  others,  like  spruce,  have  a 
pronounced  shallow-root  system.  Spruce  and  birch  require 
least  depth  of  soil,  oak  most.  Whether  the  soil  is  loose  or 
binding  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  for  tree  growth.  As 
a  rule,  the  broadleaf  trees  do  better  than  the  conifers  on  the 
stiff er  classes  of  land,  although  soils  of  average  tenacity  are  on 
the  whole  most  suitable  for  all  kinds  of  trees.  The  chief  con- 
stituents of  soil  are  clay,  lime,  and  sand;  and  as  clay  yields  the 
most  valuable  materials  for  plants,  the  qualities  of  soil  are  often 
determinable  to  some  extent  by  the  quantity  of  clay  in  them. 
Clay  soils  are  hard  and  interfere  with  the  movement  of  moisture; 
sands  are  too  porous;  limes  too  easily  heated;  loamy  soil,  there- 
fore, is  usually  best. 

The  chief  chemical  constituents  of  wood  are  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  but  the  ashes  of  wood  also  contain  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  chlorine,  silicon,  potassium,  sodium,  calcium,  mag- 
nesium, and  iron.     The  carbon  is  obtained  solely  from  the  car- 


6  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

bonic  acid  of  the  air;  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  derived  chiefly 
from  the  water  in  the  soil;  and  the  nitrogen  from  the  ammonia 
of  the  soil  formed  by  nitrifying  bacteria  from  organic  decaying 
matter.  These  other  chemicals  taken  from  the  soil  in  salts  and 
oxides  are  contained  in  very  small  quantities.  Thus  iron, 
though  very  important  for  the  formation  of  chlorophyll  in  the 
leaves,  is  present  only  in  very  small  quantities,  so  the  old  remedy 
of  driving  nails  into  a  dying  tree  was  of  no  value. 

The  percentage  of  pure  ash  in  the  dry  leaves  of  trees  varies 
from  2.3  per  cent  in  white  pine  to  7.6  per  cent  in  the  ash  tree, 
and  dry  leaves  have  a  higher  percentage  of  minerals  than  wood. 
This  indicates  the  well-known  fact  that  conifers  are  less  demand- 
ing as  regards  chemicals  than  broadleafs.  For  this  reason  the 
soil  improves  under  coniferous  crops  if  a  good  canopy  is  main- 
tained, as  the  minerals  accumulate.  It  also  illustrates  the  way 
in  which  a  forest  soil  is  annually  renewed  by  the  return  of  the 
leaves  rich  in  minerals. 

Of  all  the  elements  taken  from  the  soil  nitrogen  is  the  most 
important.  The  chief  source  of  nitrogen  is  the  raw  humus  com- 
posed of  decayed  leaves  and  wood.  It  has  been  found  that  dead 
leaves  mixed  with  soil  absorb  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere  in 
large  quantities,  probably  through  the  assistance  of  bacteria, 
mosses,  and  lichens.  This  capacity  of  the  bacteria  is  reduced 
by  frost,  so  the  supply  of  nitrogen  is  less  in  the  open  in  places 
exposed  to  frost.  Some  plants  take  in  nitrogen  from  the  air 
through  their  leaves.  About  10  pounds  of  nitrogen  are  carried 
to  the  ground  per  acre  annually  by  rain,  and  the  litter  of  leaves 
and  twigs  carries  to  the  ground  in  a  beech  forest  40  pounds,  in 
spruce  28  pounds,  and  in  pine  26  pounds  of  nitrogen  per  acre. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  annual  consumption  of  nitrogen  for  wood 
production  is  9  pounds  for  beech  per  acre;  12  pounds  for  spruce 
and  fir;  and  6|  pounds  for  birch.  An  investigation  in  a  planta- 
tion of  maritime  pine  on  a  sand  dune  56  years  after  planting 
produced,  from  a  layer  of  soil  6  inches  deep,  7  tons  of  organic 
matter  per  acre  with  nitrogen  1.5  per  cent,  or  248  pounds  of 
nitrogen  per  acre.     This  is  an  annual  accumulation  of  4.5  pounds 


SILVICS  7 

per  acre.  In  another  plantation  the  average  accumulation  was 
7.2  pounds  per  year.^ 

As  regards  the  chemical  composition  of  soil,  sour,  marshy  soils 
are  unsuited  to  most  species  except  Scotch  and  white  pine  and 
spruce.  These  are  about  the  only  species  that  will  thrive  on 
pure  peat.  Ash,  maple,  beech,  and  elm  require  a  moderate 
amount  of  lime  in  the  soil,  and  oak,  locust,  European  larch,  and 
Austrian  pine  thrive  best  on  soils  which  contain  some  lime, 
while  chestnut  seems  to  do  better  in  a  soil  containing  very  little 
lime.  Some  recent  investigations  in  soil  seem  to  show  the  com- 
manding importance  of  lime  as  a  controlling  factor  in  tree  growth. 
Most  trees  are  lime-loving  to  a  certain  extent,  but  an  over- 
abundance of  lime  in  all  cases  is  unfavorable.  The  hardwoods  — 
oak,  ash,  maple,  chestnut,  beech  —  seem  to  demand  the  presence 
of  a  considerable  quantity  of  potash;  spruce,  fir,  pine,  and  birch 
thrive  on  soils  rich  neither  in  lime  nor  potash.  For  the  produc- 
tion of  wood  only,  the  demands  vary  as  follows  in  high  forests: 
from  4  to  20  pounds  of  lime;  from  2  to  10  pounds  of  potash,  and 
from  ^  to  4I  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  per  acre  per  year.  The 
combined  influence  of  all  these  factors  dependent  on  soil  and 
situation  is  shown  in  the  amount  of  timber  produced  per  acre 
and  in  the  quality  of  the  timber. 

When  the  trees  of  a  wood  are  tall  and  straight,  free  from 
branches,  and  tapering  but  little,  it  is  the  best  possible  indica- 
tion that  the  soil  and  situation  are  eminently  suited  to  the  wood- 
land crops  growing  on  them. 

These  factors  of  climate,  soil,  etc.,  have  influenced  the  dis- 
tribution of  trees  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  forest  "types."  In 
crossing  a  mountain  ridge  we  find  one  type  of  forest  in  the 
swamp  at  its  base,  which  is  quite  distinct  in  its  composition 
and  appearance  from  that  on  the  drier,  rolling  land  just  be- 
yond. On  the  steeper  slopes  another  forest  type  is  substi- 
tuted, just  as  the  human  type  raised  in  the  wild  mountains 
differs  from  that  of  the  fertile  valleys  below.  Scientific  forestry 
largely  deals  with  the  causes  for:  these  varied  types,  while  applied 

^  See  Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  VI,  p.  290,  and  Vol.  VII,  p.  192. 


8  FORESTRY  IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

forestry,  based  on  this  knowledge,   tries  to  develop  in  every 
locality  the  type  which  is  best  fitted  to  exist  there. 

The  term  "stand"  is  the  unit  of  description  applied  to  any 
definite  portion  of  a  forest  having  a  definite  distinguishing  char- 
acteristic. Thus  in  a  certain  type  we  may  have  a  stand  of 
young  growth;  a  stand  of  diseased  and  damaged  trees;  a  stand 
of  exceptionally  tall  specimens,  etc.  These  stands  may  be  ex- 
tensive, covering  many  acres  or  they  may  be  confined  each  to  a 
small  part  of  an  acre. 


Fig.  I.  — Two  stands  uf  white  pine  of  dififerent  age  classes.     The  one  at  the  right  is  40  years, 
that  on  the  left  70  years  of  age. 


Forest  Types. 

In  every  forest  the  ceaseless  struggle  going  on  gradually 
brings  about  many  changes  unseen  by  the  casual  observer. 
In  the  small  openings  of  the  forest,  caused  by  windfall,  snow 
breakage,  or  other  causes,  seeds  of  trees  germinate  and  begin 
to  grow.  The  kind  of  trees  that  come  up  here  depends,  as 
has  already  been  shown,  on  many  factors  —  the  kinds  of  seed 
trees  near,  the  covering  of  the  soil  and  moisture  content,  the 
light  available,  etc.      On  the  burned-over  and  freely-exposed 


SILVICS  9 

mineral  soils,  poplar,  bird  cherry,  and  birch  spring  up  freely; 
on  the  abandoned  fields,  pine  and  spruce  are  especially  apt  to 
appear;  and  on  the  moss-covered  decaying  logs  of  the  northern 
woods,  little  hemlocks,  fir,  and  spruce  seedlings  start.  In  a  few 
years  the  growth  and  very  existence  of  these  seedlings  are  in- 
fluenced and  other  changes  take  place.  The  tops  of  the  old 
trees  may  spread  out  and  shade  the  openings,  so  that  only  the 
tolerant  seedlings  can  endure;  or  the  remaining  old  stand  may 
be  felled  and  an  unlimited  amount  of  light  admitted.  Under 
this  impetus  certain  rapid-growing  species  may  push  up  to  the 
entire  exclusion  of  the  others,  or  these  others  if  they  are  tolerant 
of  shade  may  be  relegated  to  an  understory  of  secondary  im- 
portance. On  an  acre  of  forest  soil  thousands  of  such  seedlings 
may  start,  but  in  the  course  of  their  various  struggles  and  under 
innumerable  external  influences  their  ranks  are  so  thinned  that 
only  a  few  hundred  grow  into  fair-sized  trees.  A  stand  of 
looo  trees  per  acre  20  feet  high  by  the  time  it-  is  80  feet  high 
and  correspondingly  large  will  seldom  contain  over  400  trees  to 
the  acre.  The  trees  that  are  killed  in  this  constant  strife  fall 
to  the  ground  after  a  few  years,  decay,  and  add  to  the  humus  of 
the  soil.  As  the  forest  grows  old  gaps  are  caused  by  these 
deaths  and  reproduction  again  takes  place.  Whether  the  same 
kind  of  trees  will  come  in  depends  upon  the  conditions  at  that 
time. 

In  every  region  certain  combinations  of  forest  trees  and  under- 
brush are  characteristic  of  different  sites.  As  already  explained, 
this  community  of  tree  life  is  called  a  ''type,"  and  is  influenced 
by  soil,  exposure,  elevation,  moisture,  and  other  factors.  As 
examples  of  types,  we  may  mention  the  ''spruce  slope  type," 
characteristic  of  the  steep  mountain  slopes  of  northern  New 
England,  and  "chestnut  oak  type,"  of  the  trap  ridges  of  Connec- 
ticut. Under  natural  conditions  such  a  forest  type  maintains 
itself  century  after  century  on  the  site  to  which  it  has  become 
adapted.  Accordingly  it  is  known  as  the  permanent  type  of 
that  particular  site.  Circumstances  not  in  the  regular  course 
of  nature  may  entirely  change  the  conditions  and  cause  the 


lO  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

appearance  of  a  different  forest  type.  Such  influences  are  wind- 
fall, extensive  damage  by  heavy  snows,  by  insects  or  fungi,  by 
fires,  and  by  lumbering  or  clearing  for  farming.  The  type 
following  any  change  of  this  sort  is  a  temporary  type,  as,  for 
example,  the  "poplar  type"  on  burns,  or  the  "old-field  type" 
on  abandoned  cleared  lands.  Gradually  this  temporary  type, 
if  left  to  itself,  will  change  into  the  permanent  type  and  after 
perhaps  fifty  or  one  hundred  years  the  forest  will  have  the 
form  and  composition  that  it  had  before  the  change.  Such 
is  nature's  way  of  asserting  her  rights. 

Every  forest  type  will  be  found  under  a  considerable  variety 
of  condition  of  soil,  moisture,  etc.,  and,  of  course,  will  make  its 
best  development  where  the  sum  total  of  conditions  is  most 
favorable.  Foresters  recognize  this  situation  as  Quality  I  for 
the  type,  and  usually  speak  of  Qualities  II  and  III  as  designating 
respectively  poorer  sites. 

Pure  and  Mixed  Stands. 

One  of  the  first  things  to  notice  in  the  study  of  a  forest  is  the 
kind  of  trees  that  are  present  and  the  proportion  of  the  more 
important  ones.  In  the  virgin  forests  of  northern  New  England, 
for  example,  we  find  spruce,  hemlock,  birch,  maple,  beech, 
probably  basswood,  and  several  other  species.  The  hardwood 
forests  of  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island,  on  the  other  hand, 
consist  of  chestnut,  oak,  hickory,  maple,  birch,  elm,  hornbeam, 
etc.  Both  of  these  are  termed  "mixed  forests."  But  in  the 
former  region,  especially  in  Maine,  there  are  extensive  areas  that 
have  been  burned  over  which  are  now  covered  with  canoe  birch. 
There  are  old  pastures  in  northern  Vermont  now  overgrown  with 
impenetrable  thickets  of  arborvitae;  and  further  south,  with  white 
pine.  These  are  "pure  forests,"  being  composed  of  but  one 
species.  As  used  in  this  country  a  stand  is  called  "pure"  if  80 
per  cent  of  the  main  crop  is  composed  of  one  species. 

A  study  of  the  causes  of  these  differences  reveals  the  fact  that 
pure  forests  are  usually  composed  of  trees  whose  seeds  are  light 
and  are,  therefore,  borne  long  distances  and  in  great  numbers 


SILVICS  II 

by  the  winds.  Anyone  accustomed  to  tramp  in  winter  must 
have  seen  the  snow-covered  fields,  though  far  from  trees,  well 
sprinkled  with  birch  seed.  Although  these  light-seeded  species 
often  occur  in  mixed  forests,  the  heavier-seeded  varieties  are 
characteristic  of  them  and  never  form  pure  forests  except  under 
particularly  unfavorable  circumstances.  Such  exceptions  are 
the  summits  of  the  trap  ridges  of  Connecticut  where  the  soil  is 
too  scant  to  support  any  tree  life  except  a  very  open,  pure  forest 
of  chestnut  oak. 

There  are,  of  course,  artificially  pure  forests,  as  those  which 
are  planted,  or  those  from  which  all  but  one  species  have  been 
removed.  This  brings  us  to  the  question  which  has  been  pro- 
lific of  discussion  among  foresters,  as  to  whether  pure  or  mixed 
forests  are  more  profitable. 

Naturally  there  are  advantages  in  a  mixture  of  deep  and 
shallow-rooted  trees,  since  a  greater  store  of  soil  moisture  and 
fertility  is  thus  made  available.  So  also  different  trees  having 
somewhat  different  requirements  as  to  chemical  or  physical 
properties  of  soil  can  abstract  more  from  a  given  area  than  could 
one  species,  and  a  mixture  of  trees  having  different  degrees  of 
shade  endurance  can  dwell  more  closely  and  form  a  heavier  stand 
per  acre.  But  the  chief  advantage  of  a  mixture  is  in  case  of  some 
catastrophe  which  devastates  one  species  but  spares  the  others. 
The  tamarack  may  suffer  from  insect  ravages,  as  was  the  case 
twenty  years  or  more  ago.  If  other  species  are  in  mixture  they 
remain  to  take  up  the  area,  to  reproduce,  and  also,  to  some  extent, 
to  present  a  barrier  to  the  invasion  of  insects.  In  case  of  a 
severe  windstorm,  the  more  shallow-rooted  trees  may  be  over- 
turned in  exposed  situations,  unless  protected  by  a  mixture  of 
windfirm  varieties.  So  against  all  forest  enemies  a  mixture 
forms  a  safeguard.  There  is  also  a  financial  advantage  in  raising 
mixed  forests.  The  length  of  time  required  to  grow  timber  is 
so  great  that  it  is  impossible  to  predict  what  species  will  be  more 
valuable  by  the  time  of  maturity.  In  Europe  the  first  forestry 
measures  were  induced  by  a  scarcity  of  fuel  wood  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  large   cities.     Hardwoods  were,  therefore,  cultivated  in 


12  FORESTRY  TN   NEW   ENGLAND 

these  early  operations,  but  to-day  when  railroad  transportation 
has  brought  coal  to  the  cities  from  long  distances  and  manu- 
facture is  given  an  impetus,  the  demand  is  for  softwood  lumber 
and  the  systems  of  management  have  been  changed  to  produce 
it.  A  mixed  forest  provides  against  such  changes  of  the  market 
by  furnishing  different  classes  of  timber.  On  the  other  hand, 
pure  forests  have  now  well-recognized  advantages,  the  primary 
one  being  the  simplicity  of  management.  While  the  chances 
for  injury  are  greater  than  with  mixed  forests,  the  profits  are 
also  greater  if  such  injury  is  avoided,  for  a  pure  forest  of  trees 
adapted  to  a  situation  will  produce  more  valuable  timber  than 
a  mixed  one. 

Much  can  be  said  theoretically  in  favor  of  each  kind.  For 
practical  purposes  in  New  England,  it  may  be  said  that  good 
management  of  our  existing  mixed  forests  will  gradually  restrict 
the  mixture  to  two  or  three  of  the  most  valuable  species;  while 
plantations  will  be  made  pure,  at  least  over  small  areas.  As 
certain  soil-fertilizing  qualities  are  furnished  by  the  heavy  shade 
and  decaying  foliage  of  less  valuable  species,  such  as  beech  and 
hemlock,  they  may  be  sometimes  planted,  but  this  planting 
should  usually  be  in  the  form  of  under-planting. 

Mixed  forests  undoubtedly  have  a  greater  aesthetic  value  than 
large  pure  forests,  and  for  this  reason  will  always  be  character- 
istic of  estate  forests. 

Coppice  and  High  Forests. 

Nearly  all  the  deciduous  trees  of  New  England  have  the 
ability  to  resprout  when  cut,  a  power  common  to  only  one  or 
two  conifers.  In  some  cases  these  sprouts  spring  from  the  top 
of  the  stump,  but  with  most  trees  from  its  base.  In  the  New 
England  forest,  chestnut  is  the  most  prolific  sprouter  as  regards 
the  number  of  sprouts,  their  thriftiness,  and  the  advanced  age 
to  which  it  is  able  to  produce  them.  While  the  white  oak 
sprouts  but  little  after  the  age  of  sixty  years,  there  are  numerous 
cases  of  chestnuts  which  have  grown  from  stumps  one  hundred 
and  ten  years  or  more  old.     Besides  the  chestnut  and  various 


SILVICS  13 

species  of  oak,  the  red  maple  and  white  ash  and  basswood  are 
prolific  sprouters.  Next  to  these  in  this  regard  are  some  species 
of  birch  and  hickory;  but  the  species  characteristic  of  the 
northern  forest,  such  as  sugar  maple,  yellow  birch,  and  beech, 
sprout  comparatively  Httle,  and  the  trees  resulting  from  them 
rarely  amount  to  anything. 

A  forest  produced  by  sprouts  is  a  coppice  or  low  forest,  so 
called  because  the  trees  seldom  attain  the  height  of  those  raised 
from  seed,  and  are  grown  mostly  for  the  production  of  small- 
dimension  materials,  especially  fuel. 

As  distinct  from  this  is  the  high  forest  composed  of  trees  that 
have  grown  from  seed.  Practically  all  our  virgin  forests  were 
of  this  character,  and  wherever  a  second  growth  of  conifers  has 
come  up  on  an  old  pasture  it  is  a  high  forest,  even  if  not  over  ten 
feet  in  height,  the  distinction  being  that  trees  sprung  from  seed 
will  in  time  produce  tall  timber. 

A  combination  of  the  coppice  and  high-forest  forms  is  known 
as  the  "composite  form,"  in  which  seedling  trees  and  sprouts 
are  grown  together. 

The  effect  of  these  different  methods  of  reproduction  are 
nowhere  better  exemplified  than  in  the  forests  of  northern  and 
southern  New  England.  The  slopes  of  the  White  and  the  Green 
Mountains  when  once  denuded  of  their  spruce  become  reclothed 
with  conifers  only  after  a  series  of  years.  In  the  lower  and 
warmer  regions  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  hills  are  immediately  reclothed  with  forest  of  the  same 
species  that  were  cut.  Such  are  the  advantages  of  the  unkept 
woods  of  this  region  over  those  of  the  north.  But  as  a  practical 
system  the  simple  coppice  can  be  advised  only  in  regions  where 
there  is  a  profitable  market  for  fuel  wood,  as  small-dimension 
material  is  its  chief  product.  In  America  the  sale  of  such 
products  is  slight  compared  with  the  demand  for  lumber,  ties, 
poles,  etc.,  so  the  land  owner  should  gradually  transform  the 
coppice  forest  to  a  high  forest,  either  of  the  same  or  more  valuable 
species. 


14 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


Even  and  Uneven-aged  Forests. 

If  several  specimens  of  the  paper  or  canoe  birch  in  a  stand 
grown  on  an  old  burn  are  cut,  it  will  be  found  that  the  ages  vary 
but  httle,  as,  for  example,  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  years. 
In  Connecticut  it  has  been  the  practice  of  farmers  for  over  a 


Fig.  2. 


A  virgin  forest  of  a  mixed  uneven-aged  character.     Spruce,  yellow  birch, 
paper  birch,  maple  and  beech  are  the  chief  species. 


century  to  cut  their  wood  lot  "clean"  whenever  the  trees  were 
of  a  sufficient  size  to  furnish  the  material  desired.  This  was 
formerly  cordwood,  but  during  the  past  generation  the  use  of 
coal  has  become  so  general  that  other  products  are  now  taken 
from  the  wood  lot.  In  either  case  it  has  been  the  custom  to  cut 
all  the  trees  on  a  certain  area.     These  are  of  species  that  sprout 


SILVICS  15 

naturally  from  the  stump,  and  the  result  is  that  another  forest 
all  of  whose  trees  are  of  the  same  age  comes  up  to  take  the  place 
of  its  predecessor.     These  are  called  "even-aged  forests." 

Of  a  very  different  character  is  the  virgin  forest  of  the  Adiron- 
dacks  or  the  White  Mountains.  Here  one  will  find  stunted 
spruces  that  have  not  attained  a  height  of  three  feet  in  fifty 
years  along  with  one-year-old  seedlings  overshadowed  by  larger 
spruce  and  immense  yellow  birch  that  have  been  growing  for 
over  three  centuries.  This  is  an  uneven-aged,  or  as  it  is  often 
termed,  a  selection  forest.  Patches  of  seedlings  spring  up  here 
and  there  in  small  openings  where  a  few  grow  into  saplings  and 
finally  into  large  trees.  With  such  a  variety  of  sizes  and  species 
these  forests  are  often  most  beautiful,  but  on  account  of  their 
unevenness  are  usually  least  profitable  to  manage. 

We  have  now  described  the  chief  distinguishing  characteristics 
of  all  our  forests.  Whatever  the  composition,  the  forest  must  fall 
into  each  of  these  groups:  it  must  be  pure  or  mixed;  even-  or 
uneven-aged;  coppice  or  high  forest. 

The  business  of  forestry  is  chiefly  concerned  with  the  harvest- 
ing of  a  crop  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  a  young  growth  of  the 
desired  species.  To  bring  this  about  various  methods  have  been 
developed  to  suit  the  requirements  of  different  classes  of  forest. 

For  purposes  of  uniformity  the  classification  of  forest  forms 
set  forth  by  Graves^  is  here  given  in  tabulated  form. 

A.     HIGH    FOREST   FORMS. 

1.  Selection  Form.  —  Seedling  trees  of  all  ages,  from  seedhngs 
to  veterans,  are  represented  mixed  together  individually  or  in 
groups. 

2.  Regular  or  Even-aged  Form.  —  The  trees  are  approximately 
even-aged. 

3.  Irregular  Form.  —  A  stand  which  is  not  even-aged,  nor  yet 
of  all  ages,  but  has  for  some  reason,  either  artificial  or  accidental, 
two  or  more  ages  well  represented. 

^  See  "The  Principles  of  Handling  Woodlands,"  by  Henry  S.  Graves:  Wiley  & 
Sons. 


l6  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

4.  Two-storied  Form.  —  Two  distinct  stands  on  the  same  area, 
one  growing  underneath  the  other.  They  may  be  the  same  age, 
but  composed  of  trees  of  different  rates  of  growth. 

5.  The  Reserve  Form. — A  regular  stand  in  which  scattered 
older  trees  are  retained  over  a  second  rotation  or  longer. 

B.    COPPICE   FORMS. 

1.  Regular  Coppice  Form. — Here  the  sprouts  are  approxi- 
mately of  the  same  age. 

2.  Irregular  Coppice  Form.  —  Various  ages  are  represented 
owing  to  bad  treatment. 

C.    COMPOSITE   FORMS. 

1.  Regular  Composite  Form. — Here  sprouts  and  seedling 
trees  of  approximately  the  same  age  are  growing  together. 

2.  Irregular  Composite  Form. — This  corresponds  to  the  ir- 
regular coppice  .with  the  addition  of  seedling  trees  of  various 
ages. 

3.  Coppice  with  Standards.  —  In  addition  to  the  regular 
coppice  stand  there  are  scattered  trees  grown  from  seed  on  the 
same  area;  these  are  allowed  to  grow  over  several  sprout  rota- 
tions. 


CHAPTER  II. 

SILVICULTURAL   SYSTEMS. 

In  order  to  harvest  different  kinds  of  forests  and  to  insure  an 
equally  good  growth  after  cutting,  various  systems  of  cutting 
have  been  developed.  Often  they  differ  very  little  from  ordi- 
nary methods  of  lumbering,  but  in  other  cases  may  demand  a 
considerable  money  investment  and  a  high  degree  of  forestry 
knowledge.  The  forester,  or  the  layman  who  handles  his  own 
forests,  should  have  these  systems  definitely  in  mind,  as  only  in 
this  way  can  he  secure  satisfactory  results  in  the  reproduction  of 
the  desired  species.  Thus  far  these  systems  have  been  Httle 
used  in  America,  but  as  our  market  conditions  approach  those 
of  Europe  they  will  be  adapted  to  our  conditions.  And  even 
under  our  present  rough  conditions  it  is  as  well  to  have  some 
ideal  to  work  for,  some  definite  method  to  follow,  as  in  other 
agricultural  lines. 

The  classification  of  these  systems  is  the  same  as  that  used  by 
Graves,^  with  the  exception  that  some  of  the  least  important 
systems  described  by  him  (generally  modifications  of  the  chief 
systems)  are  here  omitted  in  order  to  avoid  confusion. 

I.   Systems  Depending  on  Reproduction  by  Seed. 

A.     THE    SELECTION    SYSTEM. 

This  system,  as  its  name  implies,  is  adapted  to  selection 
stands. 

Since  the  virgin  forest  of  all  countries  is  an  uneven-aged  or 
irregular  high  forest,  the  first  and  crudest  system  deals  with  this 
and  is  called  the  "selection  system,"  because  the  trees  to  be 
harvested  are  selected  here  and  there  as  they  become  mature. 

1  "Principles  of  Handling  Woodlands,"  by  Henry  S.  Graves:  Wiley  &  Sons. 
17 


i8 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGL.\ND 


As  the  old  trees  are  removed  seedlings  gradually  take  their  place. 
By  this  method  no  area  is  ever  cut  clean,  and  for  that  reason  it 
appeals  to  those  interested  in  the  woods  mainly  for  aesthetic 
reasons.  It  is  so  well  known  that  with  many  it  stands,  un- 
fortunately, for  the  whole  of  forestry,  with  ill-advised  legisla- 
tion in  some  localities  imposing  a  minimum  diameter  limit  for 
cuttings.  As  forestry  develops  in  this  country  the  selection 
forest  will  gradually  be  supplanted  by  even-aged  stands  managed 


4        15      Hi      17    18 


Fig.  3.  — The  selection  system  in  a  stand  of  spruce  and  hardwoods. 

I.     First  cutting.' 
II.     Ten  years  later.     Reproduction  has  started  in  the  openings,  and  the  stand  is  marked 
for  a  second  cutting. 

'  In  this  and  succeeding  diagrams,  trees  to  be  cut  are  indicated  by  dashes. 


under  one  of  the  other  systems.  In  the  application  of  this 
system  the  whole  stand  may  be  cut  through  every  year,  or  the 
stand  is  divided  into  blocks  each  of  which  is  cut  over  periodically. 
In  this  case  the  interval  between  cuts  is  called  the  cutting  cycle. 
Under  ideal  conditions  this  would  be  about  ten  years.  Care 
must  be  taken  always  that  trees  of  all  ages  be  maintained,  other- 


SILVICULTURAL   SYSTEMS 


19 


wise  a  time  will  come  when  the  cut  must  be  reduced  and  the 
revenue  correspondingly  diminished.  If  the  whole  stand  is  cut 
over  annually  the  amount  removed  should  correspond  with  the 
annual  growth  of  the  whole  stand.  If  it  requires  ten  years  to 
get  through  the  forest  the  equivalent  of  the  growth  of  ten  years 
would  be  removed  at  each  cutting.  Thus,  in  the  application  of 
the  system  in  one  of  our  white  pine  forests  having  an  area  of  100 
acres  and  with  an  annual  growth  of  500  board  feet  per  acre  and 


timbtr  marked  for  selection 


Fig.  4.  —  The  hardwood  type.     A  stand  (cMiiaininL;   mature ^^  .«.  -^ 

cutting.     (The  marked  trees  are  blazed.)     Note  overmature  and  unhealthy  condition 
of  many  trees. 


a  cutting  cycle  of  ten  years,  5000  board  feet  per  acre,  or  500,000 
board  feet  on  the  whole  area,  can  be  removed  each  decade.  If 
the  rotation  in  this  forest,  or  the  length  of  time  required  to  mature 
the  crop,  is  one  hundred  years,  the  area  cut  over  annually,  with 
a  cutting  cycle  of  ten  years,  would  be  10  acres,  and  the  annual 
cut  from  this  area  would  amount  to  50,000  board  feet.  In  our 
virgin  forests  where  there  is  a  great  range  of  age  classes,  all 
mature  trees  are  grouped  in  the  oldest-age  class  and  the  first 
cuttings  will  tend  to  eliminate  them,  so  that  in  the  forests  of 
twenty  years  hence  we  shall  have  comparatively  few  trees  over 
one  hundred  years  old. 


20  FORESTRY  IN  NEW   ENGLAND 

B.     THE    CLEAR-CUTTING    SYSTEMS. 

Where  such  a  large  proportion  of  the  trees  is  cut  that  the 
remainder  does  not  influence  the  growth  of  reproduction,  it  is 
called  a  "clear  cutting."  The  clearing  may  be  done  in  one  or  a 
series  of  operations  but  is  usually  accomplished  in  twenty  years 
at  most.  While  the  selection  system  is  best  adapted  for  many 
of  our  virgin  forests  under  present  conditions,  there  are  certain 
exigencies  which  make  clear  cutting,  especially  of  even-aged 
forests,  more  profitable  as  well  as  preferable  from  a  silvicultural 
standpoint.  For  example,  in  the  pure  spruce  forests  of  the  steep 
slopes  of  the  White  Mountains  there  is  such  great  danger  of 
windfall  if  scattered  trees  are  left  that  some  form  of  clear  cutting 
is  a  necessity.  This  is  also  the  case  where  logging  is  so  difficult 
and  expensive  that  only  infrequent  operations  can  be  profitable; 
and  where  trees  are  so  large  that  later  removal  would  injure 
valuable  reproduction.  In  many  of  our  culled  forests  so  little 
of  value  is  left  that  it  is  practically  necessary  to  cut  clean  the 
inferior  growth  and  replant.  Of  course  there  are  certain  dis- 
advantages in  the  use  of  these  systems,  among  the  most  impor- 
tant being  the  exposure  of  the  soil,  especially  on  steep  slopes,  to 
erosion.  Berry  bushes  and  other  weeds  are  apt  to  spring  up  on 
such  areas  and  seriously  interfere  with  reproduction.  Young 
trees  are  more  apt  to  be  injured  by  sun,  wind,  frost,  and  insects 
than  when  started  under  shade.  Good  forestry  principles  de- 
mand that  the  areas  cut  clean  shall  not  be  very  large. 

Young  growth  may  be  secured  after  clear  cutting  either  by 
natural  seeding  or  artificially  by  sowing  or  planting.  The 
detailed  methods  of  accomplishing  artificial  reproduction  will  be 
discussed  later  under  the  chapter  on  Planting,  so  only  its  theory 
need  be  considered  here.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that  natural 
reproduction  is  a  rather  slow  process,  while  restocking  by  plant- 
ing can  be  accomplished  at  once,  and  is  more  certain  to  be 
successful.  Then,  again,  the  varieties  obtainable  by  natural 
means  are  limited  to  those  already  present;  but  in  planting,  the 
species  best  adapted  to  the  soil  or  most  remunerative  may  be 


SILVICULTURAL   SYSTEMS  21 

substituted.  On  the  other  hand,  natural  reproduction  is  ap- 
parently, though  not  always  actually,  cheaper.  Natural  re- 
production follows  nature's  methods  closely  and  for  that  reason 
will  be  the  method  largely  used  for  the  present  in  this  country, 
and,  in  fact,  has  preference  in  certain  kinds  of  forests  in  Europe. 


Fig.  $.  —  A  stand  of  European  silver  fir  in  the  Vosges  Mountains,  France,  lOO  to  150  years, 
managed  on  the  selection  system. 


I.    Clear  Cutting  with  Artificial  Reproduction. 

By  this  method  the  area  in  question  is  cut  clean  and  the  plant- 
ing or  seeding  is  done  afterwards.  It  is  desirable  that  the  slash 
or  limbs  be  disposed  of  in  some  way  before  planting.  This 
method  was  the  chief  one  used  by  the  Cornell  Forest  School  some 
ten  years  ago  in  the  management  of  its  extensive  tracts  in  the 
Adirondacks  and  for  which  the  school  became  so  unpopular  that 
it  was  given  up.  It  was  not  realized  at  that  time  that  any  form 
of  clear  cutting  could  be  good  forestry.  It  is  a  system  admirably 
adapted  for  small  tracts  well  protected  from  fire,  in  stands  which 


2  2  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

are  either  overmature  or  have  been  so  damaged  that  desirable 
natural  reproduction  is  impossible,  and  wherever  intensive  man- 
agement is  possible. 

Graves  recognizes  three  systems  of  clear  cutting  with  artifi- 
cial reproduction,  but  as  they  are  practically  identical  except  for 
the  area  cut  over,  these  various  modifications  need  not  be  con- 
sidered in  this  book. 

2.    Clear  Cutting  with  Natural  Reproduction. 

The  success  of  this  method  depends  on  the  thoroughness  with 
which  the  area  is  seeded  from  trees  standing  on  the  border  of, 
or  scattered  over,  the  cut  area.  Naturally,  it  can  be  used  with 
Jight-seeded  trees  only.  The  completeness  of  the  seeding  is 
proportional  to  the  area  cut  and  the  ability  of  the  seed  to  be 
carried  long  distances.  For  example,  the  method  on  a  large  cut- 
over  area  would  be  much  more  successful  with  poplar  than  with 
spruce. 

a.    Clear  Cutting  the  Whole  Stand. 

If  the  cutting  is  made  just  after  a  seed  year,  there  may  be 
enough  seed  on  the  ground  to  warrant  cutting  off  the  whole 
stand.  Occasionally  one  finds  a  place  where  a  pine  or  a  spruce 
stand  happened  to  be  cut  at  such  a  time,  and  a  dense  growth  of 
seedlings  has  resulted. 

Very  often  a  mature  stand  of  timber  may  be  surrounded  by 
younger  stands  which  would  naturally  be  left  for  a  number  of 
years.  If  such  a  mature  stand  is  cut  clean  the  area  will  be  seeded 
in  for  a  considerable  distance  on  all  sides  from  the  surrounding 
younger  stands;  and  if  this  cut-over  area  is  not  too  large  it  will 
be  completely  reseeded  in  this  way. 

h.    Reserving  Blocks  of  Trees. 

When  the  clear-cutting  system  is  to  be  used  on  extensive  areas 
some  provision  must  be  made  for  reproduction  by  leaving  a 
sufficient  number  of  seed  trees.  In  many  locahties,  and  espe- 
cially with  shallow-rooted  trees,  there  is  great  danger  of  windfall 


SILVICULTURAL   SYSTEMS 


23 


in  leaving  scattered  trees  or  small  groups,  and  to  overcome  this 
difficulty  large  blocks  of  trees  are  reserved.  The  ideal  way  to 
overcome  this  danger  of  windfall  would  be  to  use  the  strip  sys- 
tem described  a  Uttle  farther  on,  which  leaves  40  to  50  per  cent 
of  the  timber  for  a  second  cutting.  Oftentimes  poor  market 
conditions  and  expensive  logging  prevent  two  cuttings  and 
require  that  at  least  75  per  cent  of  the  timber  be  cut  in  one  cut- 
ting.    Under  these  circumstances  the  best  which  can  be  done  is 


12  3  4  5   6   7   b  9  10  H   12  13  14   16  lb  17  18  19  20  21  22  23  24  25   2(>  27 


?»?i?n??mmT?9?f9????ffn??wmff??w??????rf?f?M^ffaffflffi?#ff?M^m9 


Fig.  6.  —  The  scattered  seed-tree  method. 
A  mature  stand  marked  for  a  reproduction  cutting.     The  entire  stand  is  to  be  cut 

except  for  occasional  seed  trees. 
Ten  years  later,  showing  the  reproduction  fully  established  and  the  old  seed  trees 

marked  for  removal. 


to  leave  15  to  25  per  cent  of  the  timber  in  the  form  of  large  blocks. 
These  blocks  are  carefully  located  with  reference  to  seeding  the 
cut-over  area,  usually  on  ridges  or  the  upper  portions  of  slopes. 
A  young  stand  should  be  selected  for  this  purpose  if  practicable, 
since  it  is  not  expected  to  return  to  remove  it  for  a  number  of 
years,  possibly  not  for  an  entire  rotation.  Occasionally  there 
are  blocks  of  inferior  trees  of  little  value  for  lumber  which,  never- 
theless, are  perfectly  good  for  seed  purposes.     At  best  the  method 


24 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


is  only  an  expedient  to  be  used  during  the  present  pioneer  stage 
of  forestry  until  our  markets  have  improved  enough  to  make  a 
more  intensive  system  possible.  It  is  very  doubtful  even  now 
whether  it  is  better  to  invest  money  in  reserve  blocks  of  over- 
mature timber  or  in  replanting  after  cutting  clean. 


By  permission  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Forester. 

Fig.  7. — The  scattered  seed-tree  method.      Pine  seed  trees  are  seen  together  with  some 
hardwoods.     These  latter  will  be  cut  clear  for  cordwood,  only  pine  remaining. 

c.   Reserving  Scattered  Seed  Trees  {Scattered  Seed-tree  Method). 

In  some  locahties  where  there  is  little  danger  of  windfall  and 
with  well-rooted  species,  this  system  of   clean  cutting  with  re- 


PROPERTY  OF 

A.  A  im.  COLLEGE  LIBRARY. 


SILVICULTURAL   SYSTEMS  25 

serves  of  scattered  trees  is  advisable.  Neither  this  nor  the 
preceding  system  can  be  used  with  any  other  than  hght-seeded 
trees.  The  best  number  of  seed  trees  to  be  left  varies  con- 
siderably, but  they  should  not  be  farther  apart  than  their 
heights,  three  to  eight  per  acre.  Often  very  limby  or  partially 
decayed  trees,  so  long  as  they  are  windfirm,  may  be  left  for  this 
purpose.  They  should  have  large  crowns  occupying  at  least 
half  the  tree's  height,  since  these  bear  the  largest  crops  of  seed, 
while  suppressed  and  spindling  trees  have  very  little  seed.  The 
investment  consequent  on  this  method  is  less  than  that  entailed 
by  the  previous  method,  since  less  timber  in  the  aggregate  is 
left.  Wherever  many  or  valuable  trees  are  required  as  seed 
trees  some  other  system  should  be  substituted. 

After  reproduction  has  been  estabhshed  the  seed  trees  are 
usually  removed.  In  some  cases  small  groups  of  three  to  ten 
or  more  seed  trees  are  left  standing  together.  This  is  done  to 
better  prevent  windfall. 

d.    Reserving  Thrifty  Standards  {Reserve  Seed-tree  Method). 

Under  the  two  systems  just  described  trees  are  left  for  seed 
alone,  hence  inferior  trees  may  be  left.  Under  the  reserve  seed- 
tree  system  trees  are  left  for  greater  growth  as  well  as  for  seed, 
and  only  straight,  thrifty  specimens  are  reserved.  The  system 
is  well  adapted  to  stands  of  moderate  age  where  there  are  many 
trees  capable  of  continuing  a  thrifty  growth  for  years,  probably 
for  another  rotation.  If,  for  example,  the  rotation  used  in  white 
pine  were  seventy-five  years,  these  reserves  or  standards  might  be 
left  over  one  rotation,  until  they  were  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years  old,  when  they  would  be  very  valuable  for  special  purposes, 
as  for  derrick  sticks,  besides  having  served  as  seed  trees.  While 
under  the  previous  system  less  than  a  dozen  trees  per  acre  are 
required  for  seeding,  under  this  system  from  15  to  25  reserves 
per  acre  may  be  left.  Naturally  the  reproduction  is  better  on 
this  account. 


26 


'forestry   in   new   ENGLAND 


e.  Clear  Cutting  in  Strips. 
As  market  conditions  improve  it  will  become  feasible  to  cut 
a  stand  clean  in  two  or  more  operations  instead  of  taking  out 
the  bulk  of  the  timber  at  once,  as  described  in  the  clear-cutting 
systems  already  considered.  When  this  is  practicable  one  of 
the  forms  of  the  strip  system  will  be  of  value  in  New  England. 
The  strip  system  may  be  applied  in  either  of  two  ways:  i,  with 
alternate  strips;  2,  with  progressive  strips. 


Fig.  8.  —  The  progressive  strip  system. 
I.     A  mature  stand  marked  for  reproduction  cutting. 
II.     Ten  years  later.     The  first  strip  is  reproduced  and  a  second  : 


ready  to  be  cut. 


I.  The  strips  are  here  cut  at  fairly  regular  distances  removing 
about  half  the  timber  and  leaving  alternate  strips  uncut  to  seed 
up  the  cleared  areas.  The  best  results  are  obtained  where  the 
cut  strips  are  not  much  wider  than  the  height  of  the  bordering 
trees,  although  they  may  be  three  times  as  wide  with  some  light- 
seeded  species.  It  is  customary  to  allow  several  seed  years  to 
pass  between  cuttings  so  that  the  area  may  be  well  reproduced. 
The  remaining  stand  can,  of  course,  be  cut  clean  and  replanted; 
or  one  of  the  previously  described  seed-tree  methods  may  be 


SILVICULTURAL   SYSTEMS  2^ 

applied  on  these  alternate  strips.  If  the  period  between  cuttings 
were  long  enough  to  allow  the  new  generation  to  produce  seed 
this  would  be  unnecessary,  but  it  is  not  the  practice  to  wait  so 
long. 

2.  Under  this  method  the  stand  is  removed  by  a  series  of 
strips,  beginning  on  one  side  and  progressing  in  the  direction  of 
the  prevailing  wind  across  the  area.  The  last  strips  must  be 
reproduced  by  some  other  method.  An  interval  of  several  seed 
years  is  allowed  to  elapse  between  the  cuttings.  It  would,  there- 
fore, take  a  very  long  time  to  cut  over  a  whole  forest  in  this  way. 
To  overcome  this  delay  the  stand  is  divided  into  several  nearly 
equal  areas  and  a  series  of  strips  is  established  in  each. 

/.    Clear  Cutting  in  Patches  {Group  Method). 

Irregular  patches  of  unequal  size  are  cut  usually  where  a  group 
of  reproduction  is  already  started.  These  first  openings  are  not 
over  200  feet  across  and  do  not  aggregate  over  one-third  the 
entire  area.  When  these  patches  are  entirely  reproduced  from 
the  surrounding  stand,  the  cuttings  are  enlarged  gradually  until 
all  is  cleared.  The  last  strips  will,  of  course,  have  to  be  repro- 
duced by  some  other  method. 

C     THE    SHELTERWOOD    SYSTEM    (STAND    SYSTEM). 

There  are  certain  disadvantages  connected  with  all  of  the 
clear-cutting  systems  which  are  overcome  by  the  shelterwood 
system.  Under  the  former  methods  the  soil  is  exposed  and 
reproduction  is  retarded  by  drought  and  frost.  It  is  also  im- 
possible to  use  them  with  heavy-seeded  trees,  such  as  oak, 
chestnut,  and  beech. 

The  principle  of  the  shelterwood  system  is  to  open  and  re- 
move the  stand  gradually  by  a  series  of  thinnings.  This  results 
in  reproduction  under  the  shelter  of  the  mother  trees  which  are 
not  all  cut  until  complete  reproduction  has  been  accomplished. 
A  more  even  distribution  of  seed  results  from  this  system  because 
there  are  large  numbers  of  seed  trees  well  distributed  over  the 
area,  and  the  young  seedlings  are  protected  by  the  shade  of  the 


28 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


remaining  trees.  The  mother  trees  also  benefit  from  the  thin- 
nings and  make  a  more  rapid  growth  during  the  remainder  of 
their  lives. 


2  3  4  5  6      7   8  9  10  11   12  13  14    15 16 17  18   19  20  21  22  23  24  25  2t>  27  2s 


Fig.  g.  —  The  shelterwood  sj'stem. 

I.     An  even-aged  stand  sixty  years  old  marked  for  the  preparatory  cutting. 

II.  Five  years  after  the  preparatory  cutting  has  been  made.  The  seedbed  has  been 
made  more  favorable  for  germination  and  a  little  reproduction  may  be  seen  in  the 
more  open  places.     The  stand  is  marked  for  the  seed  cutting. 

[II.  Ten  years  after  the  seed  cutting.  Complete  reproduction  has  been  secured  and  the 
stand  is  marked  for  the  final  cutting. 


The  system  can  be  applied  only  with  windfirm  species  or  where 
there  is  no  danger  from  windfall,  as  the  system  of  cutting  leaves 
many  trees  isolated.  On  account  of  the  gradual  removal  of  the 
stand,  by  means  of  several  cuttings,  the  shelterwood  system  is 


SILVICULTURAL   SYSTEMS 


29 


best  suited  for  well-settled  regions  where  intensive  management 
can  be  practiced. 

The  simplest  form  of  this  system,  and  the  only  one  that  can  be 
applied  with  crude  market  conditions,  is  to  remove  the  stand  in 
two  cuttings  about  twenty  years  apart.  The  first,  intended  to 
give  opportunity  for  reproduction  to  start,  is  called  the  "seed 


By  permission  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Sendee. 

Fig.  10.  —  Reproduction  of  white  pine  under  the  shelter  of  a  mature  stand. 


or  reproduction  cutting,"  and  removes  about  75  per  cent  of 
the  merchantable  timber.  Ten  to  twenty  years  later  the  second 
or  "final  cutting  "  removes  the  remainder  of  the  old  stand. 

The  maturest  and  least  thrifty  timber  is  selected  for  the  first 
cutting,  while  thrifty  trees  and  good  seed  producers  are  the  kind 
retained  for  the  final  cutting.  These  trees  should  be  left  dis- 
tributed over  the  areas  as  uniformly  as  possible. 

With  the  better  market  conditions  which  prevail  in  portions 
of  New  England,  one  of  the  more  intensive  forms,  such  as  have 


30  FORESTRY  IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

been  developed  in  Europe,  can  be  used.     The  cuttings  fall  into 
three  classes: 

1.  Preparatory  cuttings. 

2.  Seed  cuttings. 

3.  Removal  cuttings  including  the  final  cutting. 

The  purpose  of  the  preparatory  cutting  is  to  prepare  the  soil 
for  the  reception  and  germination  of  the  seed.  Often  in  a  dense 
stand,  such  as  many  of  our  spruce  stands,  there  is  a  heavy  layer 
of  "duff"  or  decaying  needles,  and  the  seed  cannot  come  in 
contact  with  the  mineral  soil,  and  hence  may  either  fail  to  germi- 
nate or  die  soon  after  it  germinates. 

The  increased  circulation  of  air  following  a  thinning  dis- 
integrates the  humus  and  makes  a  favorable  seed  bed,  and  the 
remaining  trees  cast  enough  shade  to  prevent  the  rank  growth  of 
injurious  weeds.  The  preparatory  cutting  also  gradually  ac- 
customs the  mother  trees  to  isolation,  and  tends  to  make  them 
more  windfirm.  This  cutting  removes  the  inferior  trees  —  those 
which  are  diseased,  suppressed,  defective,  or  particularly  liable 
to  windfall,  and  weed  species  not  desired  in  the  next  crop.  From 
20  to  30  per  cent  of  the  volume  of  the  stand  is  removed  in  the 
preparatory  cuttings,  leaving  a  space  of  not  over  three  to  five 
feet  between  the  crowns  of  the  remainder.  After  an  interval  of 
from  five  to  ten  years  the  humus  should  be  sufficiently  decom- 
posed to  leave  the  mineral  soil  exposed  in  spots,  when  it  is  time 
for  the  seed  cutting.  This  is  a  heavy  thinning  made  during  a 
seed  year  by  taking  out  from  one-quarter  to  one-half  of  the 
original  stand,  and  with  the  purpose  of  estabhshing  proper 
conditions  for  the  start  of  reproduction.  The  best  results  are 
obtained  with  heavy-seeded  trees,  if  this  cutting  can  be  made 
after  the  seed  has  fallen.  The  largest  and  most  spreading- topped 
trees  are  removed  at  this  time,  as  felling  them  later  might 
damage  the  reproduction.  If  unfavorable  conditions  exist,  the 
reproduction  after  the  seed  cutting  may  be  assisted  artificially 
by  planting  or  simply  by  stirring  up  the  soil  with  mattocks,  or 
by  pasturing  hogs  with  the  purpose  of  rooting  up  the  fitter  and 
exposing  the  mineral  soil. 


SILVICULTURAL   SYSTEMS 


31 


The  shelter  trees  which  are  left  under  this  system  to  shade 
the  ground  and  the  little  seedhngs  (thus  distinguishing  the 
system  particularly  from  the  clear-cutting  systems)  are  taken 
out  in  the  removal  cuttings  as  soon  as  the  reproduction  is  well 
established.  The  first  of  these  cuttings  is  made  within  three 
or  four  years  of  the  seed  cutting.  Under  the  most  intensive 
system,  as  developed  in  Europe,  there  are  three  or  four  of  these 
removal  cuttings,  including  the  final  cutting,  occurring  at  inter- 
vals of  about  three  years.  The  inevitable  breakage  in  the  re- 
production caused  by  these  cuttings,  if  severe  enough  to  leave 
gaps,  is  repaired  by  planting. 

The  following  table  shows  the  occurrence  of  the  various 
cuttings  used  in  this  system,  covering  a  period  of  twenty-five 
years.  The  number  of  preparatory  and  removal  cuttings  will 
undoubtedly  be  decreased  and  the  total  length  of  the  period  from 
the  first  to  the  last  cutting  will  be  shortened  in  the  use  of  the 
system  in  New  England. 


TABLE   SHOWING   DISTRIBUTION   OF  CUTTINGS  UNDER 
SHELTERWOOD   SYSTEM   AS  MOST  INTENSIVELY  APPLIED. 


Kind  of  cutting. 


Preparatory  cuttings.  . 

Seed  cutting 

Removal  cuttings 

Including  final  cutting. 


Date  of 
beginning. 


1900 
1910 
191S 
1925 


Approximate 
number  of 
cuttings. 


Percentage  of 

original  stand 

removed. 


25  to  40 
25  to  50 

10  to  50 


II.   Systems  Depending  on  Reproduction  Wholly  or  Partly 
from  Sprouts  (Coppice). 


The  systems  already  described  depend  for  their  success  upon 
the  production  and  growth  of  young  trees  from  seed.  The 
following  systems  depend  largely  on  the  ability  of  trees  to  sprout 
when  cut  back.  Naturally  these  systems  can  only  be  apphed 
in  forests  composed  of  trees  which  sprout  readily.  In  this 
country  the  most  prolific  sprouters  are  chestnut,  oak,  basswood, 


32  FORESTRY   IN  NEW   ENGLAND 

birch,   maple,   especially  soft  maple,   ash,  hickory,  and  other 
hardwoods. 

There  are  three  systems  depending  wholly  or  partly  on  sprout 
reproduction : 

A.  Simple  Coppice. 

B.  Coppice  with  Standards. 

C.  Pole-wood  Coppice. 

A.     SIMPLE    coppice. 

Under  this  system  which  is  so  simple  that  it  has  long  been 
practiced  in  southern  New  England,  the  stand  is  cut  clear  and 
allowed  to  sprout  up  again  from  the  stumps.  Usually  several 
sprouts  start  from  a  single  stump  although  only  a  few  live  to 
attain  tree  size.  In  the  western  part  of  Connecticut  where  the 
forests  have  been  repeatedly  cut  under  this  system  at  intervals 
of  about  twenty  years  for  the  production  of  charcoal  for  the 
iron  mines,  it  is  possible  to  distinguish  three  or  four  generations 
of  stumps  in  many  wood  lots,  each  younger  generation  of  stumps 
surrounding  the  older  ones.  The  system  is  so  easy  of  applica- 
tion that  neglect  is  common  and  a  forest  is  very  apt  to  dete- 
riorate. Some  species  continue  to  sprout  freely  much  longer 
than  others,  but  nearly  all  after  a  certain  age  fail  to  sprout 
vigorously.  Chestnut,  for  example,  generally  sprouts  well  if 
cut  at  loo  years  or  even  at  120  years,  while  white  oak  sprouts 
poorly  after  sixty  years.  To  maintain  thrifty,  fully-stocked 
coppice  stands  short  rotations  are  necessary.  Ordinarily  the 
rotation  must  be  less  than  forty  years  except  for  a  species  hke 
chestnut,  which  sprouts  well  to  a  considerable  age.  Therefore 
the  simple  coppice  system  is  chiefly  applicable  for  the  production 
of  fuel,  and  for  this  purpose  is  generally  applied  in  Europe  on  a 
rotation  of  about  twenty  years.  In  this  country  where  fuel  wood 
is  as  yet  such  a  drug  on  the  market,  the  system  has  little  to 
recommend  it.  To  secure  the  best  results  in  sprouting  the  trees 
should  be  cut  between  September  15  and  April  i.  The  stumps 
should  be  left  with  a  clean  slanting  surface  so  that  water  will 
not  settle  in  them  and  cause  decay. 


SILVICULTURAL   SYSTEMS  33 

B.    COPPICE   WITH   STANDARDS. 

There  already  exists  a  form  of  forest  which  may  be  considered 
as  a  transition  stage  between  coppice  and  high  forest  and  which 
when  fashioned  by  the  science  of  the  forester  is  called  a  coppice 
with  standards  forest.  This  is  a  forest  composed  largely  of 
sprouts,  but  with  an  admixture  of  larger  trees  grown  from  seed. 
In  the  Rhine  Valley  of  Baden  this  system  has,  perhaps,  reached 
its  highest  perfection.  Here  the  forest  is  laid  off  in  regular  sub- 
divisions, one  of  which  is  cut  each  year  of  the  rotation  of  the 
coppice,  which  is  usually  twenty  years.  In  most  cases  an  area 
is  cut  every  twenty  years  and  allowed  to  resprout.  But  instead 
of  cutting  quite  clear  a  few  selected  trees  or  standards  are  left 
to  grow  on  for  several  more  rotations.  The  standards  are  trees 
from  the  seed  and  not  sprouts.  These  standards  are  obtained 
either  by  planting  or  by  natural  seeding,  a  little  of  which  is  apt 
to  take  place  even  in  simple  coppice  stands.  At  the  end  of  the 
next  twenty-year  period  the  poorer  trees  are  cut  along  with  the 
stand  of  coppice,  but  the  best,  perhaps  thirty  to  the  acre,  are 
left  to  grow  for  another  coppice  rotation.  Again,  part  are 
removed  and  a  few  allowed  to  grow  on  to  sixty,  eighty,  or  one 
hundred  years,  thus  producing  timber  of  various  dimensions  at 
each  cutting.  When  the  system  is  once  under  way  a  stand  of 
coppice  together  with  standards  of  several  different  ages  and 
sizes  will  be  found  on  the  same  acre. 

The  reason  that  trees  grown  from  seed  are  selected  for  standards 
is  that  such  trees  live  to  a  greater  age  and  attain  larger  propor- 
tions than  those  grown  from  sprouts.  When  a  cutting  among 
the  standards  is  made  the  spaces  formerly  occupied  by  the  old 
standards  are  filled  with  seedlings  by  planting.  Trees  are 
selected  as  standards  which  are  of  valuable  species  and  will  have 
a  high  value  when  mature.  Since  these  standards  are  crowded 
only  during  the  first  part  of  their  lives,  they  form  short,  thick- 
set bodies  and  usually  produce  one  or  two  large  logs  of  fast 
growth. 


34 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


1-M      4-5^       7         8-9-10       11-12-13-14    15-16-17  18-19    20-21-22       23    24-25-26 


0      V  <0  Q 


10  li  -0 


2    29-30-31      7     32-33-34  35  36  37-38-39  40    16    41-42    43       21      44-45.46     26     47-48-49  50 


IV 


Fig. 


38  10  43 

—  Coppice  with  standards. 


I.  A  sprout  stand  25  years  of  age,  which  it  is  desired  to  manage  on  the  coppice  with 
standards'  system;  the  rotation  for  coppice  to  be  25  years  and  that  for  standards 
any  multiple  of  25  years.  The  stand  is  marked  for  the  reproduction  cutting, 
everything  being  taken  except  a  few  selected  standards  (trees  nos.  2,  7,  16,  21, 
and  25),  which  are  either  of  seedling  origin  or  are  thrifty  sprouts. 

II.     Same  stand  immediately  after  the  cutting,  showing  standards  left. 

III.  Same  stand  25  years  later.  A  second  crop  of  coppice  is  ready  to  cut  and  the  stand- 
ards are  50  years  old.  .The  cutting  will  take  all  the  coppice  except  selected 
standards.  All  the  standards  of  the  older  age  class  which  are  unhealthy,  like 
no.  21,  or  where  standing  too  thickly,  are  removed. 

rV.  Same  stand  immediately  after  the  cutting.  Two  age  classes  of  standards  are  left: 
trees  nos.  7,  16,  and  25  of  the  so-year  class  and  nos.  36,  38,  43,  and  50  of  the 
younger  class. 


SILVICULTURAL   SYSTEMS 


35 


■^^"."^ 


CoppiLc  wilh   standards  as  used   in   l-_>un)pL-.      1  iic 
leaving  the  standards. 


lias  just   bee 


C.    POLE-WOOD    COPPICE. 

This  system  combines  reproduction  by  sprouts  and  reproduc- 
tion by  seed  in  varying  proportions.  The  seedhng  reproduction 
is  secured  under  shelter,  as  in  the  shelterwood  system;  and  the 
pole-wood  coppice  system  stands  in  a  position  midway  between 
the  simple  coppice  system  and  the  shelterwood  system.  Its 
advantages  are  that  sprout  reproduction  which  requires  so  little 
skill  to  secure,  is  utilized,  and  yet  long  enough  rotations  can  be 
used  to  grow  saw  timber,  owing  to  the  fact  that  seedling  re- 
production can  be  reHed  on  to  fill  the  gaps  where  sprouting  has 
failed.  The  rotation  instead  of  being  limited  to  forty  years  or 
less,  as  in  the  simple  coppice  system,  may  be  as  high  as  eighty 
years. 

In  New  England  its  field  of  usefulness  is  in  the  southern  and 
central  portions  where  the  hardwoods  reproduce  extensively  by 
sprouts.     The  system  is  applied  by  making  two  cuttings.     The 


36  FORESTRY   IX   NEW   ENGLAND 

first  resembles  the  seed  cutting  in  the  shelterwood  system  and 
is  intended  to  get  seedHng  reproduction  started.  About  30  to 
40  per  cent  of  the  volume  is  taken  out,  the  poorest  specimens 
being  cut.  Where  the  stand  is  composed  of  species  like  chestnut, 
which  will  sprout  well  even  on  an  eighty-year  rotation,  there  is 
less  need  to  secure  seedling  reproduction  and  the  seed  cutting 
can  be  very  Hght.^  Where  trees  Hke  white  oak,  which  sprouts 
poorly  at  sixty  to  eighty  years,  occur  the  seed  cutting  must  be 
made  heavy  enough  to  encourage  complete  seedling  reproduction. 
Five  to  ten  years  after  the  seed  cutting,  or  as  soon  as  good  seed- 
ling reproduction  is  established  and  has  secured  a  few  years' 
start,  the  remainder  of  the  stand  is  removed  in  the  final  cutting. 
Sprouts  at  once  start  and  with  the  seedlings  on  the  ground 
develop  a  mixed  stand  of  seedlings  and  sprouts. 

1  Even  in  stands  where  at  eighty  years  every  stump  will  sprout,  the  stumps  are 
relatively  so  far  apart  that  the  young  sprouts  do  not  form  a  close  stand,  and  a 
mixture  of  seedlings  is  needed  to  grow  clear-bodied  trees. 


CHAPTER   III. 

SILVICULTURAL   CHARACTERISTICS   OF  THE  IMPORTANT 
NEW  ENGLAND   TREES. 

In  the  first  chapter  the  relation  of  climatic  influences,  such  as 
soil,  light,  etc.,  to  tree  growth  has  been  traced  and  the  kinds  of 
forests  to  be  dealt  with  have  been  described.  The  differences 
existing  between  forests  are  due  to  the  trees  composing  them, 
and  the  presence  of  these  in  turn  is  due  to  the  natural  conditions 
previously  mentioned.  Through  the  centuries  of  its  evolution 
each  tree  species,  as  each  animal  species,  has  acquired  certain 
definite  characteristics  which  the  forester  calls  silvicultural  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  botanical  characteristics  by  which  a 
species  is  identified.  Scientific  forest  management  must  be 
based  on  an  accurate  knowledge  of  these  characteristics  of  the 
different  tree  species. 

The  most  important  silvicultural  characteristics  of  trees,  which 
it  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  describe,  are  the  following: 

(a)  Range  and  distribution. 

(b)  Requirements  as  to  soil,  light,  and  moisture. 

(c)  Rate  of  growth  and  longevity. 

{d)    Seed  production  and  abihty  to  reproduce  by  seed  and 

sprouts. 
(e)    LiabiUty  to  damage  by  fire,  insects,  fungi,  etc. 
(y)  Purposes  for  which  used. 

White  Pine  (Pin us  strohiis). 

The  white  pine  extends  from  Newfoundland  and  southern 
Labrador  to  western  Minnesota  and  Manitoba.  It  reaches  its 
southern  hmit  in  central  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  the  southern 
Appalachians,  where  it  is  found  as  far  south  as  northern  Georgia 


38  FORESTRY   IN  NEW   ENGLAND 

and  Alabama.  It  originally  grew  in  all  sections  of  New  England 
except  on  the  higher  mountains  and  in  the  region  comprising 
southeastern  Rhode  Island  and  Cape  Cod. 

Few  forest  trees  bear  seed  every  year  and  the  white  pine  is 
rather  more  irregular  in  this  respect  than  are  most  trees.  There 
is  a  common  saying  that  the  pine  bears  a  seed  crop  only  once  in 
seven  years.  This  notion,  however,  is  incorrect.  There  was  a 
good  seed  crop  in  Vermont  in  1907,  in  parts  of  the  State  in  1910, 
and  in  other  parts  in  191 1.  It  takes  two  years  for  the  pine  cones 
to  mature.  At  the  end  of  the  first  season  the  cones  are  about 
one  inch  long  and  of  a  purplish  color.  The  mature  cones  begin 
to  open  early  in  September  when  the  seed  blows  out  and  is 
carried  by  the  wind  for  considerable  distances.  As  there  are  two 
seeds  on  each  scale,  there  may  be  eighty  or  more  seeds  in  a  cone. 
Usually  about  one  pound  of  seed  is  secured  from  a  bushel  of 
cones.  Some  large-topped  pines  will  yield  from  two  to  three 
bushels  of  cones,  which  carry  anywhere  from  50,000  to  100,000 
seeds.  A  few  such  trees  scattered  over  a  tract  are  important 
factors  toward  its  restocking.  Much  of  the  seed  is  carried  twice 
the  length  of  the  tree  and  some  of  it  considerably  farther.  It 
germinates  best  where  there  is  plenty  of  light,  as  in  a  pasture  at 
the  edge  of  the  woods,  or  in  an  opening  caused  by  windfall. 
The  Httle  seedlings  require  a  great  deal  of  light  and  will  soon  die 
if  deprived  of  it. 

These  facts  are  important  reasons  for  making  cuttings  in  a 
pine  forest  the  season  following  a  seeding.  On  account  of  the 
length  of  time  required  to  mature  the  cones,  it  is  always  possible 
to  know  a  year  ahead  when  there  is  to  be  a  good  crop,  and  the 
harvest  should  be  planned  accordingly.  If  the  cutting  is  made 
in  the  fall  or  winter  following  seeding,  when  the  ground  is  covered 
with  seed,  germination  goes  on  well  in  the  soil  which  is  stirred  up 
by  lumbering,  and  the  seedlings  grow  well  under  the  increased 
light.  If  made  the  year  before,  the  seed  from  these  trees  will 
be  lost;  if  made  the  year  after,  the  seed  would  largely  have 
germinated  and  died  for  lack  of  light  and  moisture.  This  ex- 
plains why  it  is  that  occasionally  one  finds  a  splendid  second 


SILVICULTURAL   CHARACTERISTICS 


39 


growth  of  pine  following  the  cutting  of  pine,  and  at  other  times 
there  is  no  growth  at  all. 

Cones  are  often  formed  on  very  young  pine  trees,  but  until 
the  trees  become  thirty  years  old  there  is  either  no  seed  in  these 
cones,  or  the  seed  is  liable  to  be  sterile. 


^^^>'.               i     'y^^"                                        *^^^ 

>  -  ^  -  ■  - 

^               'iil2. 

^mw^ 

■fev  • 

^r^:^c4^^  ^P^^^lK?  ■ ' 

->■"'      .-^^  ^'^:^""--'^•"■r■^.--■ 

By  permission  of  Ike  U .  i>.  Forest  Service. 

Fig.  13. — Windfalls  as  the  result  of  planting  white  pine  on  low,  wet  ground  where  the 
drainage  is  insufficient. 

The  white  pine  is  very  indifferent  in  its  demands  upon  soil 
and  moisture  and  thrives  on  all  but  the  driest  of  New  England's 
sandy  plains;  it  will  grow  also  on  hummocks,  in  swamps,  even 
with  clay  substratum.  However,  it  makes  its  best  development 
on  a  fairly  moist  loam  soil.  In  regard  to  light,  it  is  more  exact- 
ing. Under  a  light  shade  the  seedhngs  will  exist  for  several 
years,  but  they  will  make  little  growth  and  in  a  heavy  wood  are 
sure  to  succumb.  The  rate  of  growth,  as  with  all  species,  de- 
pends upon  conditions.  On  the  whole,  it  is  the  most  rapid 
growing  native  tree  of  New  England,  and  usually  averages  over 
a  foot  a  year  in  height.  The  annual  height  growth  is  sometimes 
over  three  feet,  and  the  diameter  growth  is  proportionately  large. 


40 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW    ENGLAND 


A  cross  section  of  white  pine,  which  attained  a  diameter  of 
thirty-two  inches  in  seventy-seven  years,  is  on  exhibition  in  the 
State  Forester's  office  in  Burhngton,  Vermont.  Unlike  some 
rapid  growers,  the  white  pine  Hves  to  an  advanced  age,  occasion- 
ally three  hundred  years  or  more,  though  trees  of  that  age  are 


Fig.  14.  — A  white  pine  of  the  best  type  for  lumber;  with  straight  trunk, 
without  dead  branches. 

now  rare.  In  youth  it  is  very  susceptible  to  dam_age  by  fire, 
but  as  it  gradually  substitutes  a  thick,  rigid  bark  for  the  thin, 
green,  smooth  bark  of  youth,  it  becomes  more  resistant.  Its 
chief  natural  enemy  is  the  white  pine  weevil,  which  is  described 
later  (see  Chapter  VII). 

On  account  of  its  smooth  grain  and  the  softness  of  its  wood 
the  white  pine  is  a  most  valuable  wood  for  many  purposes. 


SILVICULTURAL   CHARACTERISTICS  41 

Until  it  became  scarce  it  was  the  chief  building  lumber.  Now  the 
better  grades  are  used  largely  for  interior  finishing  and  other 
special  purposes.  The  cheaper  grades  are  used  for  match  stock 
and  the  very  poorest  grades  for  box  boards.  Its  high  value  and 
rapid  growth,  combined  with  its  abihty  to  thrive  on  the  sandiest 
and  poorest  sites,  make  the  white  pine  the  most  important  tree 
to  raise  in  New  England;  it  should  be  encouraged  wherever  it 
occurs. 

Red  or  Norway  Pine  {Pimis  resinosa). 

The  red  pine  has  about  the  same  natural  range  east  and  west 
as  the  white  pine,  but  does  not  extend  so  far  south.  In  New 
England  it  is  a  comparatively  rare  tree,  and  is  scattered  in- 
exphcably  in  small  clumps  from  the  Canadian  Hne  to  northern 
Connecticut.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  it  was  first 
noticed  near  Norway,  Maine. 

The  demands  of  the  red  pine  on  soil,  light,  and  moisture  are 
about  the  same  as  those  of  white  pine.  It  will  grow,  however, 
on  an  even  drier  sand,  but  is  more  exacting  of  light. 

Measurements  made  in  several  New  England  plantations 
show  an  average  height  of  thirty-five  feet  and  a  diameter  of  six 
inches,  in  thirty  years.  In  mixture  with  white  pine  its  height 
growth  is  fully  equal  to  that  of  the  latter,  and  its  diameter 
growth  only  a  little  smaller.  It  does  not  attain  as  large  a  size 
in  New  England  as  does  white  pine,  specimens  one  hundred 
feet  high  and  three  feet  in  diameter  being  rare. 

The  seed  years  of  the  red  pine  are  more  infrequent  than  those 
of  the  white  pine,  and  in  off  years  there  is  no  crop;  with  white 
pine  there  are  often  some  cones  between  regular  crops.  The 
seed  germinates  well  in  hot,  dry  situations,  as  on  a  fitter  of 
needles,  on  exposed  mineral  soil,  or  in  thin  grass  growth,  so  that 
in  spite  of  the  comparative  scarcity  of  seed  reproduction  is  fairly 
profific  wherever  seed  trees  occur. 

This  tree  is  free  from  insects  and  diseases,  and  suffers  less  from 
fire  than  the  white  pine.  Its  wood  is  harder  than  white  pine, 
but  is  often  classed  in  with  it  and  for  many  purposes  is  nearly 
as  good. 


42 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


On  account  of  its  rapidity  of  growth  and  freedom  from  insects 
and  disease,  the  red  pine  is  a  species  that  should  be  planted 
extensively. 


By  prrrni:.!,.,,  ..j  ll„   (  „»«,.//.;//  .V.i/.    /'.-r,     ,r. 

Fig.  15.  —  Experimental  plantations  of  the  Connecticut  Agricultural  Station.  Reading 
from  left  to  right  the  species  are:  —  red  pine,  Scotch  pine,  Austrian  pine,  white  pine. 
The  pines  are  10  years  of  age. 


Pitch  Pine   (Pinus  rigidd). 

This  is  emphatically  an  eastern  pine,  being  confined  to  a 
belt  along  the  Atlantic  from  southern  Maine  to  Georgia,  and 
extending  westward  only  to  the  edge  of  the  Mississippi  valley. 
It  occurs  throughout  New  England  in  the  extreme  northern  part, 
and  in  the  mountains. 

It  is  the  outcast  of  the  pines  and  occurs  pure  only  on  the 
sandiest  plains  where  other  trees  thrive  with  difficulty.  On 
better  soils  it  is  sometimes  mixed  with  other  pines  and  with 
hardwoods.  It  is  characteristic  of  sand  plains  in  the  Champlain 
valley,  on  Cape  Cod,  and  in  the  lower  Connecticut  valley.     In 


SILVICULTURAL    CHARACTERISTICS  43 

early  colonial  times  in  the  last-named  region  it  was  important 
as  the  source  of  tar  and  turpentine  which  were  produced  in  large 
quantities  to  supply  our  early  ship-building  industry.  To-day 
there  are  few  stands  of  any  size  or  age,  as  it  has  suffered  from  fire 
more  than  any  other  species,  owing  to  the  hot,  dry  locaHties  which 
it  inhabits. 

Its  habits  are  those  of  the  red  pine  accentuated,  in  its  abihty 
to  withstand  drought,  heat,  poor  soil,  and  in  its  greater  demands 
for  light.  Its  tendency  is  to  grow  rather  short  and  crooked,  but 
on  the  better  soils  it  attains  a  height  of  sixty  or  seventy  feet. 
Pitch  pine  seedlings  grow  more  rapidly  at  first  than  those  of  our 
other  native  pines,  but  their  growth  is  slower  after  three  or  four 
years.  The  pitch  pine  is  a  proHfic  annual  seeder  and  reproduc- 
tion on  land  not  burned  over  is  usually  good,  since  the  seed 
germinates  well  on  the  driest  of  mineral  or  needle-covered  soils. 
This  species  also  has  the  abihty  (uncommon  in  conifers)  to 
sprout  from  the  stump.  After  fires,  especially,  it  is  common  to 
find  numerous  sprouts  growing  from  .the  stump.  As  a  rule, 
however,  these  do  not  mature. 

This  tree  has  no  serious  enemies,  and  as  the  bark  is  often  an 
inch  thick  it  is  very  fire-resistant.  It  is  this  abihty  to  withstand 
fire  that  accounts  for  its  frequent  occurrence  pure  where  other 
trees  once  in  mixture,  such  as  the  white  pine,  have  been  killed 
by  fire. 

The  shade  cast  by  the  pitch  pine  is  not  very  dense,  and  the 
conditions  for  reproduction  of  white  pine  and  other  species  are 
often  best  under  its  mild  protection,  so  that  it  is  a  valuable 
agent  in  the  natural  reproduction  of  worn-out,  sandy  plains. 

On  account  of  the  poor  quahty  of  the  timber  and  its  smaller 
yield  per  acre,  the  pitch  pine  is  not  an  especially  desirable 
species. 

Scotch  Pine  {Pinus  sylvestris). 

This  is  a  foreign  tree  and  resembles  the  Norway  pine  in  ap- 
pearance, but  its  foliage  is  somewhat  bluer  and  its  bark  redder. 
A  native  throughout  Europe,  it  attains  there  a  height  of  one 


44 


FORESTRY  IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


hundred  and  twenty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  from  three  to  five 
feet.  In  America  it  has  been  extensively  planted,  generally  with 
success.  The  largest  plantations  in  the  East  are  those  on  the 
New  York  state  lands  near  Saranac  Lake. 


Fig.  10.  —  A  7-year-old  plantation  of  Scotch  pine  on  sandy  soil. 


Having  the  ability  to  withstand  intense  drought  and  to  thrive 
on  the  poorest  of  sandy  soils,  it  makes  a  remarkable  height 
growth  under  the  most  trying  circumstances.  In  Europe  it  is 
also,  extensively  planted  on  peaty  soils.  Its  demands  for  light 
are  greater  than  those  of  white  and  red  pines. 

The  seed  crop  is  abundant  every  two  or  three  years,  but  as 
yet  seed  used  in  America  is  imported.  Experience  has  shown 
that  the  seed  which  comes  from  northern  Europe  produces  better 
timber  trees  than  that  from  the  southern  part  of  its  range.  The 
presence  of  old  Scotch  pine  is  so  limited  in  this  country  that  very 
little  reproduction  occurs  and  it  is  impossible  to  judge  of  its 
ability  in  this  direction. 

In  this  country  it  has  escaped  all  enemies  except  a  bhster  rust 
which  occasionally  attacks  young  trees. 


SILVICULTURAL   CHARACTERISTICS  45 

The  lumber  of  Scotch  pine  is  similar  to  that  of  pitch  pine,  but 
of  better,  though  not  of  first-class  quaHty.  This  with  its  rapid 
growth  makes  the  tree  well  worth  planting. 

Red  Spruce  (Picea  rubens). 

This  is  a  distinctly  eastern  species  of  the  cooler  regions, 
extending  west  from  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia,  nearly 
through  New  York,  and  in  the  Appalachians  as  far  south  as 
northern  Georgia.  In  New  England  it  occurs  throughout  Maine, 
New  Hampshire,  and  Vermont,  and  on  the  higher  hills  of  central 
and  western  Massachusetts. 

All  spruces  are  tolerant  of  shade,  and  it  is  one  of  the  well- 
known  traits  of  this  species  that  it  can  exist  for  half  a  century  or 
more  under  heavy  shade  without  making  appreciable  growth, 
and  then  shoot  up  with  the  vitality  of  youth  if  the  shade  is 
removed. 

As  might  be  expected  from  its  preference  for  a  cool  climate 
it  naturally  selects  moist  situations.  Together  with  balsam  and 
tamarack  it  is  one  of  the  first  trees  to  grow  on  the  gradually 
forming  lands  of  our  northern  swamps.  However,  a  lack  of 
water  does  not  prevent  its  growth,  for  it  inhabits  high  elevations 
in  the  Green  and  White  Mountains  where  it  often  forms  pure 
stands  of  excellent  timber.  Its  root  system  is  very  shallow  and 
where  grown  on  hardpan  or  on  ledges,  trees  are  Hable  to  be 
blown  over  if  exposed  to  the  wind  by  the  removal  of  surround- 
ing trees. 

Under  favorable  circumstances,  though  the  spruce  can  hardly 
be  considered  a  rapid-growing  species,  it  often  grows  from  ten 
inches  to  a  foot  a  year  in  height.  More  often  in  virgin  forest 
it  grows  very  slowly,  and  very  old  specimens  are  common.  A 
growth  of  a  tenth  of  an  inch  per  year  in  diameter  is  a  fair  average 
for  virgin  spruce.  Four  hundred  and  seventeen  annual  rings 
have  been  counted  on  a  tree  less  than  a  foot  in  diameter,  which 
grew  on  the  upper  slope  of  a  Maine  mountain. 

The  seed  years  are  more  frequent  than  those  of  pine  and  it 
begins  to  seed  at  an  early  age. 


46 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


Trees  bear  prolific  crops  of  cones  which  open  some  two  or 
three  weeks  later  than  those  of  white  pine,  owing  to  the  cooler 
situations  in  which  the  spruce  occurs.  For  a  germinating  bed 
it  prefers  decaying  logs  or  moss,  but  does  well  on  bare  mineral 
soil  or  one  covered  with  needles.  In  any  small  opening  in  a 
spruce  forest  numerous  seedhngs  can  generally  be  found,  and  on 


Fig.  17.  —  A  stand  of  spruce  60-70  years  of  age  on  an  old  field.     Note  the  number  , 
size  of  dead  branches  still  on  the  trees. 


abandoned  fields  in  the  spruce  region  reproduction  invariably 
follows.  The  young  roots  cannot  penetrate  the  leaf  litter  of  a 
hardwood  forest,  and  spruce  reproduction  in  such  places  is, 
therefore,  scarce. 

Like  most  conifers  it  is  severely  damaged  by  fire,  and,  as 
mentioned  above,  is  very  susceptible  to  windfall.  There  are 
also  several  bark-boring  insects  which  cause  periodic  damage. 
Though  spruce  is  neither  as  rapid  growing  nor  as  valuable  as 
white  pine,  its  natural  adaptability  to  the  higher  and  northern 
portions  of  New  England,  its  value  for  many  uses  as  lumber  and 
pulp,  its  fair  growth  and  easy  reproduction,  all  combine  to  make 
it  the  most  important  tree  to  encourage  in  the  higher  elevations. 


SILVICULTURAL   CHARACTERISTICS  47 

Norway  Spruce  {Picea  excelsa). 

The  Norway  spruce,  like  the  Scotch  pine,  is  native  throughout 
northern  Europe,  but  is  not  pecuHar  to  Norway  any  more  than 
the  pine  is  to  Scotland.  It  was  planted  considerably  in  this 
country  between  1850  and  1875,  chiefly  for  ornamental  purposes, 
and  made  such  a  rapid  growth  that  in  a  few  instances  it  has  been 
planted  in  clumps  and  large  groves,  for  commercial  purposes. 
Individual  specimens  may  be  found  throughout  New  England. 
It  grows  much  faster  than  the  red  spruce,  two  feet  a  year  in 
height  being  not  uncommon.  Its  diameter  and  volume  growth 
are  equally  rapid.  One  of  the  best  known  plantations  of  this 
spruce,  a  small  patch  on  the  Billings  Estate  in  Woodstock,  Ver- 
mont, is  now  thirty-four  years  old.  Many  of  these  trees  have 
diameters  from  a  foot  to  eighteen  inches.  Four  of  them  when 
cut  made  a  cord  of  pulp  wood.  Tests  made  by  the  International 
Paper  Company  proved  that  the  wood  of  the  Norway  makes  a 
whiter  and  stronger-libered  paper  than  that  of  the  red  spruce. 
For  this  reason,  combined  with  its  rapidity  of  growth,  this 
company  has  commenced  planting  it  extensively. 

Its  requirements  as  to  moisture,  soil,  and  light  appear  to  be 
similar  to  those  of  red  spruce,  except  that  possibly  it  does  not 
thrive  so  well  on  wet  land.  In  habihty  to  damage  it  is  also 
similar  to  our  native  species. 

There  are,  however,  two  serious  objections  to  the  Norway 
spruce.  The  first  is  that  in  this  country  it  does  not  seem  to 
live  much  over  fifty  years.  This,  perhaps,  is  not  a  serious 
objection  from  the  standpoint  of  raising  pulp  since  an  excellent 
crop  may  be  secured  in  thirty-five  to  fifty  years.  The  other 
objection  is  that  it  is  a  very  poor  reproducer.  Although  this 
tree  has  been  planted  extensively  in  this  country,  it  is  difficult 
to  find  any  number  of  small  trees  that  have  seeded  from  old  ones. 
But  this  is  not  an  acquired  fault,  for  this  spruce  is  notorious, 
even  in  the  Black  Forest  of  Germany,  for  its  poor  reproduction. 
Our  native  red  spruce  is  much  superior  in  this  respect,  and  this 
difference  will  be  of  importance  as  years  pass  and  forests  now 


48  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

starting  approach  the  period  when  they  should  be  reproduced. 
Artificial  reproduction  will  always  have  to  be  the  method  of 
securing  another  stand  of  Norway  spruce. 

Even  with  these  objections  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  Nor- 
way spruce,  on  account  of  its  rapid  growth,  is  a  much  more 
encouraging  tree  to  plant  than  red  spruce;  it  should  have  a  large 
field  in  localities  not  adapted  to  pine,  especially  in  the  northern 
part  of  New  England. 

Balsam  or  Fir  (Abies  halsamea). 

This  tree  is  a  northern  species  extending  from  Labrador 
to  the  Rockies,  and  southward  in  the  Appalachians  to  West 
Virginia.  It  is  not  native  to  southern  New  England,  though 
in  the  west  it  extends  through  the  Berkshires  into  northern 
Connecticut. 

The  fir  is  less  tolerant  of  shade  than  spruce,  and  it  is  a  common 
thing  in  the  woods  to  find  small  trees  dead  from  lack  of  light. 
For  the  same  reason  the  lower  limbs  die  out  more,  making  lumber 
freer  from  large  knots.  Balsam  should  be  classed,  however,  as 
a  tolerant  tree.  The  fir  is  even  more  cosmopohtan  as  regards 
soil  and  moisture  than  the  spruce,  but,  in  general,  prefers  more 
moisture.  It  seldom  occurs  on  dry,  sandy  soils,  though  it  is 
common  on  high  mountains  where  there  is  httle  soil,  and  that 
very  dry;  in  swamps  also  it  often  occurs  pure. 

Both  spruce  and  fir  are  subject  to  damage  by  wind  but  in 
different  ways.  A  heavy  wind  that  will  uproot  a  spruce  on 
account  of  its  shallow- root  system,  will  break  down  a  balsam 
four  or  six  feet  above  the  ground.  This  breakage  is  possible 
because  the  balsam  is  seriously  attacked  by  a  fungus  which 
weakens  the  stem. 

The  fir  is  distinctly  a  rapid-growing  tree,  a  height  growth  of 
one  and  one-half  feet  and  a  diameter  growth  of  one-half  inch 
per  year  being  not  uncommon.  This  is  nearly  twice  the  growth 
made  by  the  average  red  spruce. 

The  fir  is  short-lived.  Trees  over  eighteen  inches  in  diameter 
are  rare.     On  the  lower  lands  fir  begins  to  deteriorate  between 


SILVICULTURAL   CHARACTERISTICS  49 

fifty  and  sixty  years;  higher  up  on  the  slopes  it  usually  remains 
sound  until  seventy  years. 

The  fir  is  an  exceptionally  prolific  reproducer.  Wherever  in 
a  mixed  spruce  and  fir  stand  a  cutting  is  made  the  reproduction 
is  sure  to  be  largely  of  fir.  It  prefers  as  a  seed  bed  the  bare 
mineral  soil  or  a  soil  covered  with  needles,  and  seldom  grows  on 
hardwood  fitter,  although  it  does  better  in  such  situations  than 
spruce. 

Fir  lumber  is  of  an  inferior  quafity,  but  on  account  of  the 
rapid  growth  and  splendid  ability  to  reproduce,  it  is  possibly  as 
profitable  to  raise  as  the  red  spruce.  In  the  future  when  the 
profit  from  growing  is  given  as  much  consideration  as  the  profit 
from  cutting,  the  balsam  will  be  more  appreciated. 


Hemlock  {Tsiiga  canadensis). 

The  range  of  hemlock  is  from  Newfoundland  west  to  Minne- 
sota and  south  to  Georgia.  It  is  found  scattered  throughout 
New  England  except  in  the  Cape  Cod  region. 

The  hemlock  is  only  a  httle  more  particular  than  the  pine 
in  regard  to  soil,  as  it  will  grow  in  very  dry  situations.  It  is 
rather  a  tree  of  the  hillside  than  of  the  plain,  and  especially 
prefers  cool  glens  or  ravines,  probably  on  account  of  the  atmos- 
pheric moisture,  where  it  is  usually  mixed  with  other  trees. 
Hemlock  stands  a  great  deal  of  shade,  even  surpassing  the  spruce 
in  this  ability.  It  is  very  slow  growing  and  is  apt  to  become 
shaky  in  old  age. 

Reproduction  is  good,  as  seeds  are  borne  nearly  every  year. 
They  germinate  on  practically  all  sites  but  prefer  decaying  logs 
and  similar  moist  beds. 

Hemlock  is  comparatively  free  from  disease,  and  much  less 
susceptible  to  windfall  than  spruce. 

The  lumber  is  of  inferior  quafity,  but  the  bark  has  a  slight 
additional  value  for  tanning  purposes. 

Altogether,  when  its  slow  growth  and  low  value  are  taken  into 


50  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

consideration,  the  hemlock  cannot  be  recommended  in  forestry 
operations,  and  is  doomed  to  disappear  from  our  forests  except 
when  maintained  for  aesthetic  purposes. 

Tamarack    {Larix  laricina). 

Tamarack  is  one  of  our  most  northerly  trees,  ranging  from 
Labrador  and  Newfoundland  northwest  to  Alaska,  and  south  to 
Ilhnois  and  Pennsylvania.  In  New  England  it  is  not  at  all 
common  but  is  found  in  many  restricted  localities,  usually  on 
the  border  of  a  swamp  or  the  edge  of  a  pond.  It  does  not 
extend  into  southern  New  England,  the  northern  part  of  Con- 
necticut being  its  southern  limit. 

It  requires  more  light  than  most  trees,  but  will  live  in  water 
and  on  sour  soils.  Tamarack  is  occasionally  found  on  hillsides 
but  very  rarely.  It  is  but  seldom  found  on  sand,  preferring  a 
loam  soil.  It  has  a  tendency  to  form  pure  stands  but  is 
often  mixed  with  balsam,  birch,  spruce,  and  cedar.  The  root 
system  is  shallow  but  very  compact. 

Tamarack  grows  rapidly  on  well-drained  soils,  but  very 
slowly  on  the  average  swampy  site.  It  seeds  abundantly  and 
is  a  good  reproducer  especially  on  abandoned  fields.  The  seed 
germinates  well  in  pasture  grass  or  on  the  moss-covered  soils  of 
swamps. 

The  tamarack  is  our  only  deciduous  conifer. 

Many  years  ago  the  tamarack  was  practically  destroyed  by 
the  worm  of  the  larch  sawfiy  which  eats  the  foliage.  For  this 
reason  it  is  seldom  that  one  finds  a  large,  live  tamarack  although 
dead  specimens  two  feet  in  diameter  are  common.  Of  late  years, 
however,  the  sawfiy  has  not  been  abundant  and  the  tamarack 
is  again  prospering;  in  many  places  it  is  encroaching  on  old 
pastures. 

Its  wood  is  durable  and  strong  and  is  used  for  posts,  poles, 
railroad  ties,  and  in  ship  building.  In  early  times  it  was  trans- 
ported in  large  quantities  from  Maine  to  England  for  the  last 
purpose.     Wherever  it  occurs  it  should  be  encouraged. 


SILVrCULTURAL   CHARACTERISTICS  5 1 

European  Larch  (Larix  Eiiropcea). 

This  is  a  European  tree  very  similar  to  its  American  relative, 
the  tamarack.  Unlike  the  tamarack,  it  thrives  only  on  well- 
drained  soils  and  requires  a  deep  and  moderately  fertile  soil. 
It  has  been  planted  somewhat  widely  throughout  New  England 
and  prospers  in  all  sections. 


.^■^^^^ 


*       ?!i 


Fig.  18.  — A  pure  plantation  of  European  larch,  planted  in  rows  12  by  12  feet. 

It  is  fully  as  intolerant  of  shade  as  the  tamarack  and  requires 
a  sheltered,  warm  situation,  so  that  it  is  well  adapted  for  planting 
on  south  slopes.  Here  and  there  in  the  vicinity  of  cemeteries  and 
other  places  where  the  larch  has  been  planted  a  few  seedlings 
can  be  found,  but  the  examples  of  European  larch  reproduction 
in  this  country  are  few.  Aside  from  the  damage  by  the  larch  saw- 
fly,  to  which  it  is  subject  with  the  tamarack,  the  larch  appears 
to  be  very  free  from  enemies. 

Larch  is  a  rapid  grower,  exceeding  white  pine  in  height  growth 
but  not  in  diameter  growth.  This  quahty  combined  with  the 
durability  of  the  wood  in  the  soil  makes  it  an  excellent  tree  to 
plant  for  the  raising  of  posts,  ties,  poles,  etc. 


52  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

Arbor viT^  or  Northern  White  Cedar  {Thuja  occidentalis) . 

This  is  a  northern  species  common  throughout  eastern  Canada 
and  as  far  west  as  Minnesota  and  extending  south  in  the  Appa- 
lachians to  northern  Georgia.  It  is  confined  to  the  northern 
portions  and  seldom  is  found  in  Connecticut.  It  usually  grows 
in  wet  areas  forming  dense  thickets  known  as  cedar  swamps,  but 
also  frequents  hillside  pastures  in  Vermont.  It  is  intolerant  of 
shade  as  is  shown  by  the  characteristic  death  of  the  lower  limbs 
when  grown  close  together. 

Cedar  produces  an  abundant  crop  of  seed  almost  every  year. 
It  prefers  for  a  germinating  bed  bare  mineral  soil  or  old  pasture. 
As  the  tree  advances  in  age  it  is  apt  to  be  affected  by  a  fungus 
which  causes  the  red  rot  of  the  heartwood,  and  renders  it  useless. 

The  cedar  is  very  slow  growing,  although  in  swamps  it  grows 
as  well  or  better  than  other  conifers.  As  the  wood  is  very  dur- 
able in  the  soil  it  may  be  encouraged  in  wet  situations  for  the 
production  of  posts  and  poles. 

Juniper  or  Red  Cedar  {Junipirus  virginiana). 

This  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  conifers  being  well 
scattered  over  the  United  States  from  New  England  to  North 
Dakota  and  Texas.  In  New  England  its  range  is  restricted  to 
the  southern  portion.  It  is  characteristic  of  abandoned  pastures 
in  Connecticut  and  parts  of  Massachusetts  where  it  is  easily 
recognized  by  its  picturesque  conical  form  similar  to  the  cypress 
of  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  very  intolerant  and  slow  growing, 
often  being  killed  out  by  faster  growing  and  more  tolerant  trees. 

Red  cedar  is  not  fastidious  as  to  soil  for  it  is  often  found  on 
ledges  and  sand  plains.  Although  slow  growing  it  is  a  long-lived 
tree,  but  seldom  in  New  England  does  it  attain  a  height  of  over 
sixty  feet  or  a  diameter  of  over  twelve  inches. 

Its  seed,  which  is  in  the  form  of  a  berry,  is  largely  distributed 
by  birds.  It  is  supposed  that  some  chemical  action  which  takes 
place  in  the  bird's  stomach  aids  germination.     In  old  pastures 


SILVICULTURAL   CHARACTERISTICS  53 

reproduction  is  plentiful  under  old  hardwood  trees  and  along 
fence  lines. 

The  wood  is  very  durable  and  in  great  demand  for  posts  and 
lumber  for  chests,  but  on  account  of  its  slow  growth  it  is  not  a 
tree  to  be  particularly  favored. 

Sugar  Maple  {Acer  saccharum). 

The  sugar  maple  extends  throughout  the  eastern  part  of  the 
country  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  great  plains  of  Dakota  and 
Oklahoma  and  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  occurs  every- 
where in  New  England,  but  is  more  abundant  in  the  northern 
portion  and  is  especially  associated  with  spruce.  However, 
the  sugar  maple  is  never  mixed  with  the  spruce  in  the  swamps 
or  the  higher  mountain  slopes,  but  on  the  lower  slopes  and 
gently  rolhng  land  where  the  soil  is  neither  very  wet  nor  dry. 
It  seldom  occurs  on  sand,  and  is  an  unmistakably  lime-loving 
species.  The  maple  prefers  a  well-drained,  deep  loam  soil.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  tolerant  trees  as  regards  shade,  and  young 
seedhngs  do  well  even  where  they  receive  no  direct  sunhght. 
Although  large-topped  and  ornamental  trees  on  well-fertilized 
lands  often  make  a  conspicuously  good  growth,  it  is  on  the 
whole  a  slow-growing  species.  In  the  sugar  bushes  of  Ver- 
mont and  the  virgin  forests  of  Maine  it  is  not  infrequent  to 
find  trees  from  three  to  four  centuries  old.  Although  like  most 
deciduous  trees  it  is  able  to  reproduce  by  sprouts  from  the  stump, 
as  a  matter  of  fact  it  seldom  does  so  in  New  England  except 
in  the  southern  portion.  It  more  than  makes  up  for  this,  how- 
ever, by  being  a  very  prolific  seeder.  The  seed  matures  in  the 
fall  and  is  often  thickly  scattered  over  the  ground  near  old  trees. 
It  germinates  well  in  pasture  grass  or  on  bare  mineral  soil.  The 
result  is  that  our  northern  forests  often  have  dense  thickets  of 
maple  saplings.  On  account  of  the  thickness  of  the  bark  it 
sufifers  comparatively  little  from  fire.  It  sometimes  suffers 
severely  from  defoliation  by  the  forest  tent  caterpillar.  An 
injury  to  the  sap  is  caused  and  often  ends  in  the  death  of  the 


54  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

tree.     Another  common  insect  enemy  is  the  maple  borer  which 
makes  great  sores  on  the  trunk. 

Soft  Maple  or  Red  Maple  {Acer  rubruni). 

The  range  of  this  species  is  shghtly  more  restricted  than  that 
of  hard  maple,  as  it  extends  westward  only  as  far  as  eastern 
Minnesota  and  Nebraska,  but  it  reaches  a  little  farther  south  in 
Florida.  It  is  found  throughout  New  England  but  is  more 
common  in  the  southern  section.  In  the  northern  portion  an- 
other species,  A.  spicatum  or  mountain  maple,  commonly  takes 
its  place  and  is  similar  in  character. 

The  red  maple  is  not  in  the  least  fastidious  as  to  soils  for  it  is 
the  most  common  deciduous  tree  of  swamp  lands  and  is  found 
as  well  on  very  dry  sites,  although  seldom  on  sand  plains.  In 
the  swamps  its  growth  is  only  medium,  but  on  the  old  fields  of 
southern  New  England  where  it  is  a  characteristic  feature  it 
grows  rapidly.  It  does  not,  however,  attain  great  age  and 
specimens  over  fifteen  inches  in  diameter  and  eighty  feet  high 
are  rare. 

It  produces  an  abundant  crop  of  seed  every  spring  and  repro- 
duction both  by  seed  and  by  sprouts  is  good.  The  seed  germi- 
nates best  on  old  fields  and  also  on  soil  made  bare  by  fire. 

The  bark  of  red  maple  is  soft  and  the  tree  is  easily  damaged  by 
fire.     It  has  no  serious  insect  or  fungus  enemies. 

As  the  wood  is  of  inferior  quality  it  is  used  chiefly  for  fuel. 
Except  in  swamps  and  as  a  pioneer  in  the  reestablishment  of 
forests  on  old  fields,  it  is  of  Httle  importance  silviculturally,  and 
it  is  bound  to  play  a  less  and  less  important  part  as  such  worth- 
less species  gradually  are  eliminated. 

Yellow  Birch  {Betula  lutea). 

The  yellow  birch  extends  westward  from  Newfoundland  and 
Nova  Scotia  into  Minnesota  and  south  in  the  Appalachians  to 
northern  Georgia.  It  occurs  throughout  New  England  from 
northern  Maine  to  Long  Island  Sound. 


SILVICULTURAL   CHARACTERISTICS  55 

It  is  less  particular  in  regard  to  the  character  of  the  soil  or 
moisture  than  the  sugar  maple,  but  is  less  tolerant  of  shade  than 
that  tree.  In  second  growth  stands  it  is  a  fairly  rapid  grower, 
but  under  virgin  conditions  the  growth  is  similar  to  that  of  maple 
and  it  hves  to  equally  advanced  age.  Like  all  birches  this 
species  is  a  very  proHlic  seeder,  and  as  the  seed  is  very  light  it 
is  blown  long  distances.  Birch  seed  germinates  particularly  well 
on  burned-over  land  where  the  mineral  soil  is  exposed.  Openings 
in  spruce  forests  caused  by  windfall  or  lire  or  camp  clearings 
frequently  grow  up  to  a  dense  stand  of  seedUngs  either  of  pure 
yellow  birch  or  of  this  mixed  with  other  species.  This  tree  has 
no  serious  natural  enemies  and  is  little  damaged  by  fire. 

Paper  Birch  (Betula  papyrifera). 

The  range  of  the  paper  birch  extends  across  the  continent  to 
the  Rocky  Mountains  but  not  very  far  south.  It  occurs  through- 
out New  England  but  only  occasional  specimens  are  found  in 
Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island. 

This  tree  thrives  best  on  a  fresh,  well-drained  soil,  being  fond 
of  moisture  but  not  of  swampy  land.  Although  frequently  found 
on  dry  slopes  it  does  not  prosper  there  as  well  as  the  yellow  birch. 
Paper  birch  is  one  of  the  most  intolerant  trees  and  is  often  killed 
out,  for  lack  of  hght,  by  slow-growing  but  more  tolerant  spe- 
cies, which  started  under  its  protection  but  finally  caught  up 
with  it  in  old  age.  Although  rapid  growing  in  youth,  it  is  com- 
paratively short  hved,  trees  over  one  hundred  years  old  being 
uncommon.  Specimens  over  eighteen  inches  in  diameter  and 
seventy-five  feet  high  are  scarce. 

It  produces  an  abundant  supply  of  seed,  but  on  account  of 
its  intolerance  of  shade  reproduction  is  only  successful  under 
favorable  light  conditions  such  as  those  obtained  on  burned 
areas.  .  These  also  furnish  the  bed  on  which  the  seed  germi- 
nates best  because  the  bare  mineral  soil  is  exposed.  When 
cut  at  an  age  of  less  than  sixty  years  the  stumps  sprout  pro- 
lifically  and  these  sprouts  grow  even  more  rapidly  for  forty  or 
fifty  years  than  trees  grown  from  seed. 


56  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

The  wood  of  the  paper  birch  is  used  principally  in  the  manu- 
facture of  spools,  bobbins,  dowels,  shuttles,  toys,  pegs,  etc. 

Paper  birch  is  very  susceptible  to  injury  by  fires. 

Grown  in  pure  stands  as  it  usually  is,  this  birch  is  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  trees.  In  fact,  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  any- 
thing more  beautiful  than  such  a  grove  with  the  sunlight  filter- 
ing through  the  foHage  upon  the  pure  white  bark.  In  too 
many  places  this  beauty  is  destroyed  by  the  ruthless  peehng  of 
the  bark  for  souvenir  purposes.  It  should  be  realized  that  the 
white  bark  never  grows  again,  and  that  once  peeled  the  beauty 
of  the  tree  is  gone  forever. 

On  account  of  its  rapid  growth,  its  value  for  special  purposes, 
and  its  proHfic  reproduction  on  burns,  this  tree  always  will  be 
one  of  considerable  importance  in  northern  New  England. 

Gray  Birch  {Betula  populifolia). 

The  tree  is  found  from  New  Brunswick  south  through  Dela- 
ware and  Maryland  and  west  through  New  York.  It  occurs 
in  all  parts  of  New  England,  but  chiefly  in  the  three  southern 
states. 

The  gray  birch  is  a  poor  imitation  of  the  paper  birch  but  is 
sometimes  confused  with  it  on  account  of  the  whitish  color  of  its 
bark.  This,  however,  does  not  peel  so  readily  and  is  a  dirty 
white  compared  with  the  clean  white  bark  of  its  superior. 
Furthermore,  this  tree  seldom  attains  a  diameter  over  eight 
inches  or  a  height  over  fifty  feet,  and  is  short  lived. 

The  gray  birch  is  as  characteristic  of  the  old  fields  of  southern 
New  England  as  is  the  red  cedar.  It  grows  rapidly  in  such 
situations  where  there  is  plenty  of  light,  but  under  shade  is  soon 
killed  out.  It  thrives  on  the  driest  of  sand  plains  differing  in 
that  respect  from  the  paper  birch,  but  is  also  occasionally  found 
in  rather  swampy  places.  The  quality  or  texture  of  the  soil 
seems  to  be  of  less  importance  than  the  amount  of  light  available. 
It  produces  a  large  crop  of  seed  every  fall  which  is  blown  long 
distances.     This  germinates  best  on  bare  mineral  soil,  though 


SILVICULTURAL   CHARACTERISTICS  57 

often  starting  well  on  a  thin  sod.  For  the  first  twenty  years  or 
so  it  grows  very  rapidly  and  when  cut  sprouts  vigorously,  so  that 
in  many  cases  it  is  an  undesirable  weed  on  account  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  keeping  it  out  of  the  fields. 

The  gray  birch  is  easily  killed  by  ground  fires,  but  has  no 
serious  enemies. 

It  seldom  attains  lumber  size,  and  is  an  indifferent  fuel,  but  is 
beginning  to  be  used  for  spool  and  bobbin  manufacture  and  other 
purposes  for  which  its  wood,  which  is  similar  to  that  of  the  paper 
birch,  is  fitted.  However,  it  is  not  a  tree  that  will  ever  be 
favored  by  the  forester. 

Beech  (Fagus  atropunicea). 

The  range  of  the  beech  extends  throughout  the  eastern  United 
States  from  the  Atlantic  to  Wisconsin  and  Texas  and  south  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  New  England  it  is  found  principally  in 
the  forests  of  the  three  northern  states.  As  found  in  New  Eng- 
land, it  occurs  always  in  mixture  with  other  trees,  and  prefers  a 
loam  soil.  However,  it  frequently  grows  on  very  poor  sandy 
soils  or  other  dry  situations.  It  is  one  of  the  most  shade 
enduring  trees,  and  on  this  account  it  is  able  to  grow  under  a 
dense  cover  of  other  species.  Like  the  yellow  birch  and  maple 
it  is  slow  growing  and  lives  to  an  advanced  age.  Although  it 
suckers  from  the  roots,  its  chief  means  of  reproduction  is  by 
seed,  which  being  a  heavy  nut  cannot  be  transported  by  the  wind. 
Heavy  seed  crops  occur  only  at  long  intervals,  although  some 
seed  is  borne  every  three  or  four  years.  The  seed  germinates 
best  on  a  mineral  soil  well  mixed  with  humus.  In  Connecticut, 
Rhode  Island,  and  southeastern  Massachusetts  the  beech  repro- 
duces very  poorly  from  seed  and  is  forced  to  depend  on  root 
suckers. 

Its  smooth,  heavy  bark  is  a  good  fire  resister,  and  it  has  no 
serious  enemies.  The  lumber  is  used  for  heavy  planking,  for 
tool  handles,  etc.,  but  is  of  relatively  low  value,  and  the  tree  will 
never  hold  an  important  position  in  forestry  operations. 


58  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

White  Ash  {Fraxinus  Americana). 

The  white  ash  occurs  throughout  the  eastern  half  of  the 
country,  west  into  Nebraska  and  Texas,  and  south  into  Georgia 
and  Mississippi.  In  New  England  scattered  specimens  are 
found  in  all  sections,  but  it  is  most  common  in  the  northern 
hardwood  forests. 

The  white  ash  usually  occurs  as  individuals  mixed  with  other 
trees,  seldom  forming  a  large  proportion  of  the  stand.  It  prefers 
a  moist  loam  soil  and  is  almost  never  found  on  dry,  sandy  sites. 
It  also  requires  considerable  light,  and,  when  favored  with  good 
light  and  soil,  makes  a  fairly  rapid  growth. 

The  ash  seeds  nearly  every  fall,  but  some  years  more  heavily 
than  others.  The  seed  has  a  long  wing  and  is  carried  consider- 
able distances  by  the  wind.  It  germinates  best  on  a  mineral 
soil  rich  in  humus,  and  where  such  conditions  prevail  near  seed 
trees  reproduction  is  usually  good,  although  never  so  plentiful 
as  with  some  species,  as  birch  and  maple. 

The  ash  is  frequently  covered  with  the  oyster-shell  bark 
louse,  but  has  no  serious  enemies  and  investigation  indicates  that 
it  is  not  attacked  by  the  gipsy  moth.  The  bark  is  not  very  thick 
and  consequently  the  trunk  is  seriously  injured  by  ground  fires. 

Ash  lumber  has  a  high  value  for  carriage  manufacture,  scythe 
snathes,  tennis  racquets,  and  other  special  uses  requiring  bending 
quahties. 

On  account  of  its  high  value  and  its  rapid  growth,  the  white 
ash  is  the  best  deciduous  tree  of  New  England  to  cultivate  and 
should  be  especially  favored  by  the  forester. 

Basswood  {Tilia  Americana). 
The  national  range  of  the  basswood  is  practically  the  same  as 
that  of  the  white  ash.  In  New  England  it  is  found  chiefly  in  the 
northern  hardwoods  region.  It  is  also  similar  to  ash  in  its 
•requirements  as  to  a  good  moist  loam  soil  and  plenty  of  light, 
but  will  survive  in  comparatively  dry  situations.  It  grows 
rapidly  but  seldom  reaches  advanced  age  without  becoming 
decayed  in  the  center. 


SILVICULTURAL  CHARACTERISTICS  59 

The  seed  has  a  wing  which  helps  to  carry  it  some  distance. 
It  germinates  best  on  moist  mineral  soil  rich  in  humus  and 
seedling  reproduction  in  the  north  woods  is  usually  fair.  The 
tree  has  the  further  advantage  of  being  a  prolific  sprouter,  by 
which  it  reproduces  almost  entirely  in  Connecticut  and  Massa- 
chusetts. Clumps  of  basswoods  are  common  wherever  the  tree 
occurs. 

It  is  little  troubled  by  insects,  but  is  easily  damaged  by  fire. 
Its  wood  being  Hght,  straight-grained,  and  easily  worked,  gives 
it  a  demand  for  many  purposes,  as  for  lumber,  clapboards, 
excelsior,  etc. 

The  high  value  of  the  lumber,  its  rapid  growth,  and  ability 
to  reproduce  by  seed  and  sprouts,  make  the  basswood  second 
only  to  ash  in  the  forester's  estimation,  especially  in  northern 
New  England. 

Poplar   {Populus  tre?nuloides,  P.  grandidentata,  P.  balsamea). 

The  national  range  of  these  three  species  is  somewhat  differ- 
ent but  they  all  occur  well  scattered  throughout  New  England. 
P.  tremuloides  is  more  common  in  the  northern,  and  P.  grandi- 
dentata in  the  southern  portions. 

These  true  poplars  should  not  be  confused  with  the  tulip  tree 
which  is  called  in  some  sections  yellow  poplar  and  is  native  in 
southern  New  England  but  has  a  different  character  from  the 
real  poplars,  which  are  all  similar  to  each  other. 

The  poplars  are  not  fastidious  as  to  soils  except  that  they 
rarely  grow  on  heavy  clay.  They  are  common  on  sandy  soils 
and  prefer  warm,  well-drained  situations.  They  are  all  very 
exacting  of  light  and  do  not  endure  much  shade  at  any  time. 

Poplar  is  noted  for  its  rapid  growth  and  attains  a  diameter  of 
ten  inches  or  a  foot,  and  a  height  of  sixty  feet,  in  forty  years. 
It  is  short  lived,  however,  and  usually  infested  by  a  fungus, 
Fomes  igniarius,  by  the  time  it  is  forty  and  begins  to  die  at  the 
top.     The  bark  is  thin  and  the  tree  is  damaged  easily  by  fire. 

The  crop  of  seed  which  is  borne  every  summer  is  always  a 
prolific  one  and  as  the  seed  is  very  light  it  is  blown  long  distances. 


6o  FORESTRY  IN  NEW   ENGLAND 

It  germinates  best  on  bare  mineral  soils,  especially  those  which 
have  been  burned  over  and,  therefore,  along  with  the  birches, 
the  poplars  are  the  first  trees  to  reclothe  burned  areas. 

Poplar  is  used  for  lumber,  paper  pulp,  and  many  special  uses, 
and  on  account  of  this,  its  rapid  growth  and  its  power  to  cover 
burns,  it  is  a  tree  to  command  considerable  respect  in  forestry. 

Chestnut  {Castanea  dentata). 

The  chestnut  is  a  southern  tree  and  extends  north  only  to  the 
southern  portions  of  Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  and  Maine. 
It  extends  west  into  the  Mississippi  valley  and  south  into  Ala- 
bama and  Georgia. 

Chestnut  prefers  a  rather  moist  loam  soil,  although  it  some- 
times grows  on  sand  plains  and  on  the  dry,  trap  ridges  of  Con- 
necticut where,  however,  it  is  unable  to  compete  with  the  chestnut 
oak.  Perhaps  of  all  deciduous  trees  it  is  the  most  conspicuously 
independent  of  lime.  As  regards  light,  however,  it  is  more  exact- 
ing. The  young  seedlings  cannot  thrive  long  under  shade  any 
more  than  can  the  sprouts  which  spring  in  great  numbers  from  the 
stumps.  This  sprouting  capacity  of  the  species  is  its  strongest 
characteristic,  and  the  one  by  which,  with  each  successive  cutting, 
it  gains  in  the  struggle  for  existence  with  the  rival  inmates  of  the 
wood  lot.  Trees  sprout  to  a  more  advanced  age  than  any 
other  species,  and  vigorous  sprouts  are  common  on  specimens 
no  to  1 20  years  old.  Seed  years  are  not  infrequent,  but  the 
nuts  are  eaten  so  extensively  by  men  and  rodents,  and  are 
so  injured  by  insects,  that  reproduction  depends  largely  upon 
sprouts.  The  chestnut  is  one  of  the  most  rapid  growing  New 
England  trees.  The  young  sprouts  are  especially  fast  growing, 
often  making  a  height  of  five  or  eight  feet  the  first  year.  In 
the  course  of  forty  or  fifty  years,  however,  the  seedlings  overtake 
the  sprouts  and  live  to  a  greater  age.  Most  of  the  chestnuts 
of  southern  New  England  are  of  second  or  third  growth,  and 
it  is  seldom  that  a  tree  over  150  years  is  found,  though  ia 
the  virgin  forests  of  the  south  they  attain  an  advanced  age. 
The   smooth  bark  of  the  young  chestnut  renders  it  particu- 


SILVICULTURAL  CHARACTERISTICS 


6l 


larly  liable  to  damage  by  fire,  and  even  the  older  trees  are  so 
severely  scorched  that  they  become  liable  to  fungus  diseases. 


By  permission  oj  the  Connecticut  State  Forester. 

Fig.  19.  —  A  plantation  of  chestnut  and  black  locust  68  years  of  age. 

Chestnut  killed  back  by  fire  often  sprouts  again,  and  it  is  common 
to  see  groups  of  fairly  thrifty  sprouts  surrounding  the  old  dead 


62  FORESTRY   IN   NEW    ENGLAND 

stubs.  There  is  a  special  bark  fungus,  Diaporthe  parasitica,  dis- 
cussed in  the  chapter  on  Fungi,  which  is  now  a  serious  enemy 
of  the  chestnut. 

Chestnut  wood  is  particularly  durable  in  the  soil  and  has  a 
wide  range  for  poles,  piles,  ties,  etc.,  as  well  as  for  lumber.  On 
account  of  its  wide  use  and  consequent  value,  its  abihty  to  sprout 
and  its  rapid  growth,  the  chestnut  is  the  most  valuable  tree  of 
southern  New  England,  and  should  be  much  raised  in  the  future, 
unless  the  bark  disease  renders  it  impracticable. 

White  and  Red  Oaks  {Quercus  alba  and  Querciis  rubra). 

These  two  trees,  which  are  the  most  important  of  the  New 
England  oaks,  although  somewhat  different  in  character,  may 
well  be  considered  together.  The  oaks  are  essentially  southern 
trees,  extending  up  into  New  England  from  southern  regions. 
The  white  oak  has  a  range  similar  to  that  of  chestnut;  scattering 
specimens  of  the  red  oak  extend  to  the  Canadian  line,  and  are 
found  on  Mount  Kineo  in  Maine,  and  on  an  island  in  Lake  Mem- 
phremagog,  Vermont,  although  it  is  doubtful  if  it  is  native  there. 
Neither  species  is  especially  fastidious  as  regards  soil,  for  al- 
though they  prefer  a  well-drained  loam  they  frequently  grow  on 
dry  sand  or  heavy  clay.  They  do  not  thrive  in  swamps  and 
are  seldom  found  there.  Both  oaks  can  stand  a  fair  amount 
of  shade,  more  than  the  chestnut  but  less  than  maple.  They 
differ  widely  as  regards  rapidity  of  growth.  The  red  oak  on 
good  soil  often  grows  nearly  as  fast  as  chestnut;  with  the  other 
species  the  growth  is  slower.  Both  attain  a  very  advanced  age 
and  the  oaks  are  proverbially  the  longest  lived  trees.  Both 
reproduce  fairly  well  from  seed.  White  oak  seeds  abundantly 
once  in  several  years,  but  a  seed  crop  of  red  oak  is  produced  every 
other  year.  The  nuts,  of  course,  cannot  be  transported  any 
considerable  distance  except  by  squirrels  and  similar  means. 
The  acorns  germinate  best  on  a  mineral  soil  lightly  covered  with 
leaves.  In  southern  New  England  the  chief  reproduction  of  oak 
is  by  sprouts.     The  sprouting  capacity  of  the  white  oak  de- 


SILVICULTURAL  CHARACTERISTICS  63 

creases  rapidly  after  sixty  years.  The  red  oak  is  a  better 
sprouter,  and  here  again  is  a  close  second  to  the  chestnut. 

Oak  bark  is  so  thick  that  it  is  little  damaged  by  surface  fires. 
The  white  oaks,  however,  are  scorched  severely  by  hot  surface 
fires,  after  which  they  become  infested  with  fungi. 

In  eastern  Massachusetts  and  the  adjacent  territory  the  oaks 
are  damaged  and  frequently  killed  by  the  gipsy  and  brown-tail 
moths. 

Oak  lumber  is  strong  and  the  white  oak  particularly  is  durable 
in  the  soil.  It  has  accordingly  many  uses  and  sells  at  a  good 
price.  The  numerous  uses  make  the  oaks  important  trees  to 
produce,  but  their  rather  slow  growth  is  a  factor  against  them 
from  the  forester's  standpoint.  Red  oak  will  be  planted  much 
more  than  the  white. 


Tulip    Tree,    Whitewood,    Yellow    Poplar    {Liriodendron 
tulipifera) . 

This  tree,  known  in  different  parts  of  its  range  by  these  various 
names,  is  a  southern  species  extending  from  Massachusetts  west 
into  lUinois  and  Arkansas  and  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In 
New  England  it  is  most  common  in  Connecticut. 

In  the  region  treated  in  this  book,  the  whitewood,  as  it  com- 
monly is  called  here,  is  usually  a  tree  of  the  rich,  moist  bottom 
lands,  and  rarely  grows  on  dry  upland  sites.  In  its  requirements 
as  to  light  it  is  exacting,  though  the  seedHngs  sometimes  start 
under  a  light  shade. 

The  tulip  is  a  fairly  rapid  grower,  although  in  this  section  its 
growth  is  probably  less  rapid  than  farther  south.  It  is  also  a 
long-lived  tree.  It  has  a  characteristically  straight  form,  free 
from  defects,  and  veterans  two  feet  through  and  eighty  or  ninety 
feet  high  are  sometimes  found  even  in  this  northern  extension  of 
its  range.     In  the  south  it  grows  much  larger. 

Seed  is  borne  prolifically,  and  being  light  and  equipped  with 
a  wing,  like  ash  seed,  it  is  carried  considerable  distances.  The 
seed  germinates  easily  on  light  leaf  litter  or  bare  mineral  soil,  but 


64  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

as  only  a  small  percentage  of  the  seed  is  fertile,  reproduction  in 
this  region  is  somewhat  scanty.  It  sprouts  occasionally  from 
the  stump  but  cannot  be  considered  a  vigorous  sprouter. 

The  tulip  has  a  tender  bark  and  is  easily  damaged  by  fire. 
Although  the  leaves  are  sometimes  badly  infested  with  a  scale 
insect  it  has  no  serious  insect  or  fungus  diseases. 

The  lumber  is  smooth,  clear-grained,  soft,  and  usually  free 
from  defects,  hence,  easily  workable.  Known  in  the  market 
as  white  wood,  although  usually  of  a  greenish-yellow  color,  the 
lumber  has  many  uses,  as  in  the  manufacture  of  carriages  and 
furniture,  for  cheap  interior  finish,  etc.  Near  the  seacoast  it  is 
used  for  piling. 

On  account  of  its  rapid  growth  and  its  value  the  tulip  is  a  tree 
to  be  encouraged  in  sites  suited  to  its  production. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

FOREST  PLANTING  AND   SEEDING. 

The  essential  difference  between  forestry  and  lumbering  lies 
in  the  measures  taken  when  harvesting  timber  to  make  provision 
for  a  second  growth.  We  have  described  the  various  silvicul- 
tural  methods  by  which  this  may  be  brought  about.     It  often 


Fig.  20.  —  One-year-old  white  pine  seedlings  grown  for  forest  planting. 

happens  that  these  attempts  are  not  wholly  successful  and  large 
gaps  occur  in  the  young  stand.  These  are  as  much  to  be  deplored 
in  good  forest  management  as  they  would  be  in  raising  corn  or 
tobacco,  and  in  addition  to  the  natural  methods  it  is  necessary 
to  resort  to  artificial  means  of  stocking.  Among  these  methods 
clear  cutting  with  artificial  reproduction  was  described.  Under 
this  system  planting  or  sowing  is  depended  upon  entirely  for  the 
new  stand. 

In  all  parts  of  the  country  there  is  land  once  used  for  agricul- 
ture, which  was  either  unsuited  for  that  purpose  or  has  become 

65 


66  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

exhausted  by  a  system  of  farming  which  did  not  maintain  the 
fertihty  of  the  soil.  Such  lands  are  often  better  suited  for  the 
raising  of  forests  than  any  agricultural  crop,  and  must  be  stocked 
artificially.  Much  land  forested  to-day  is  not  covered  with  fast 
growing  trees  or  with  timber  that  possesses  high  value.  Such 
lands  are  not  producing  so  much  or  so  valuable  wood  as  they 
might.  Another  opportunity  for  artificial  reproduction  is  found 
in  introducing  better  species  into  such  woodlands.  This  can 
often  be  satisfactorily  accomplished  by  setting  out  one  to  two 
hundred  plants  per  acre.  Although  only  partially  stocking  the 
land  at  the  time  of  planting,  if  cared  for  they  will  finally  develop 
and  dominate  the  stand.  The  desired  change  in  the  forest  is 
thus  accompHshed  for  a  fraction  of  the  expense  necessary  to  plant 
the  whole  area.  It  will  be  apparent  that  there  are  numerous 
opportunities  for  the  use  of  artificial  reproduction,  and  it  is 
necessary  that  the  best  methods  of  accomphshing  this  be 
thoroughly  understood. 

Artificial  establishment  of  a  forest  may  be  effected  by  planting 
or  by  seeding.  By  "seeding"  is  meant  the  use  of  seed  on  the 
land  to  be  restocked;  ''planting"  impHes  that  small  trees  raised 
in  a  nursery  or  taken  from  the  woods  are  used,  and  it  has  been 
found  that  planting  is  almost  always  preferable,  because  for  the 
same  amount  of  money  a  more  complete  stand  can  be  secured  by 
planting  and  because  two  or  three  years  of  the  rotation  are  saved 
thereby. 

Several  methods  of  seeding  are  practiced.  Broadcast  sowing 
of  seed,  the  most  common,  is  also  least  often  productive  of  the 
best  results.  This  may  be  modified  by  brushing  in,  or  raking  in 
the  seed.  Sometimes  the  ground  is  prepared  in  advance  for  the 
reception  of  the  seed  by  stirring  the  soil  with  a  harrow.  Where 
the  land  is  sufficiently  free  from  rocks  and  brush  very  satisfactory 
results  can  often  be  secured  by  plowing  and  harrowing  the  land 
and  then  sowing  the  forest  seed  with  some  farm  crop,  such  as 
buckwheat.  This,  however,  is  an  expensive  method  and  land 
which  can  be  so  treated  is  usually  fitted  for  agriculture. 

Partial  seeding  instead  of  broadcasting  is  sometimes  tried. 


FOREST   PLANTING   AND   SEEDING  67 

Where  plowing  is  possible  furrows  may  be  run  across  a  tract  at 
intervals  of  from  six  to  ten  feet  and  seed  sown  broadcast  in  these 
furrows.  Another  modification  is  the  so-called  "seed-spot 
method."  In  the  application  of  this  system,  spots  favorable  for 
germination  are  prepared,  every  six  or  eight  feet,  by  scraping 
away  the  sod  for  a  foot  square  and  loosening  the  soil.  Seeds  are 
then  sown  in  each  spot  and  are  pressed  in  by  the  foot  or  buried 
at  different  depths  according  to  the  nature  of  the  seed.  De- 
pressions made  in  this  way  or  from  plowing  a  furrow  give  the 
seedhngs  the  benefit  of  more  moisture  than  is  available  on  level 
ground,  and  free  them  for  a  brief  period  from  the  encroachments 
of  grass  and  weeds. 

Several  good  methods  of  planting  are  recognized.  In  New 
England  the  tool  most  used  is  the  mattock  or  old-fashioned  grub 
hoe,  as  it  is  often  called.  With  this  the  sod  must  first  be  scraped 
away  for  a  space  about  a  foot  square,  that  the  seedling  may  not 
be  harmed  by  grass  or  weeds.  With  a  strong  stroke  of  the  mat- 
tock the  blade  is  driven  well  into  the  soil.  Then  by  raising  the 
handle  and  turning  it  sHghtly  to  the  right  the  soil  is  broken  on 
one  side,  while  under  the  blade  a  cleft  is  made  into  which  the 
rootlets  of  the  plant  may  be  placed  before  the  blade  is  removed. 
The  mattock  is  then  taken  out  and  the  earth  made  firm  with  the 
foot.  This  is  called  the  sHt  system  of  planting.  Sometimes 
with  a  Ught  sod  the  prehminary  scraping  away  may  be  omitted, 
thus  shortening  the  operation  but  decreasing  the  efliciency. 

A  more  thorough  way  of  planting  and  one  surer  of  results  is 
to  scrape  away  the  sod,  and  then  to  remove  the  earth  from  the 
center  of  the  square.  In  this  hole  the  tree  is  set  by  hand  or 
with  the  aid  of  a  trowel.  Fine  dirt  should  be  packed  tightly 
around  the  plant.  This  and  the  sUt  method  are  recommended 
for  ordinary  work.  In  either  case  the  emphasis  must  be  placed 
on  the  removal  of  the  sod  before  the  hole  is  made. 

In  wet  places  where  planting  is  desirable  it  is  customary  to 
make  mounds  of  earth  and  set  the  plants  in  the  center  of  these. 
This  is,  of  course,  a  more  expensive  method. 

One  precaution  above  all  others  must  be  taken  in  forest  plant- 


68 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


ing,  especially  with  conifers,  and  that  is,  not  to  expose  the  fine 
rootlets  to  drying  influences  of  sun  or  wind,  even  for  a  few 
minutes,  because  they  are  very  tender  and  will  be  killed  by  such 
exposure.  When  the  nursery  stock  arrives  at  the  plantation  it 
should  be  heeled  in  immediately  near  the  place  of  final  planting. 
To  do  this  a  slanting  ditch  is  dug  slightly  deeper  than  the  length 


By  permission  of  the  Connecticut  State  Forester. 

Fig.  21.  —  A  small  planting  crew  organized  in  unili  of  two  men. 

of  the  roots.  The  bundles  of  trees  are  untied  and  loosened,  and 
the  roots  carefully  spread  out  and  covered  with  soil.  This  is 
called  "heeling  in"  the  plants.  It  is  well  to  wet  the  roots  by 
pouring  on  water  after  the  plants  have  been  heeled  in.  The  soil 
should  be  firmly  pressed  against  the  tree  roots  and  if  several 
days  are  to  elapse  before  planting,  some  boughs  should  be  spread 
over  them  for  a  shade.  It  is  better  yet  to  dig  the  ditch  where 
there  is  shade. 

Just  before  planting,  the  roots  should  be  thoroughly  puddled, 
that  is,  dipped  in  a  thick  mud.     For  this  a  mixture  of  clay  and 


FOREST   PLANTING  AND   SEEDING  69 

loam  is  preferable,  of  such  consistency  that  it  will  stick  to  the 
roots  but  will  not  harden  on  them,  in  case  of  a  prolonged  drought. 
The  plants  should  be  carried  to  their  destination  either  in  pails 
half  filled  with  a  mixture  of  mud  and  water  or  in  baskets  with 
plenty  of  wet  sphagnum  moss  to  cover  their  roots. 

An  important  consideration  is  the  size  of  the  plants  with  which 
the  plantation  is  established.  A  small,  inexpensive  plant  is 
wanted,  yet  one  hardy  enough  to  withstand  the  severe  conditions 


Fig.  22.  — 


Nursery  beds  of  2-year-old  pine  seedlings. 


to  which  it  is  often  exposed.  What  are  known  as  two-year-old 
seedlings  and  three-year-old  transplants  are  the  two  grades 
ordinarily  employed  in  estabhshing  commercial  plantations. 
The  former  has  been  grown  for  two  years  in  a  seed  bed ;  the  latter 
was  transplanted  after  one  or  two  years  in  a  seed  bed  and  has 
grown  one  or  two  years  since  transplanting.  Three-year-old 
transplants  cost  approximately  twice  as  much  as  two-year-old 
seedlings  and  are  much  stronger  plants.  The  present  tendency 
is  to  use  seedlings  only  on  the  most  favorable  sites,  and  this  is 
the  wiser  course. 

The  relative  merits  of  pure  and  mixed  forests  have  already 
been  discussed.     It  is  safe  to  say  that  most  of  the  planting  in  this 


yO  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

country  will  be  pure,  that  is,  that  there  will  be  httle  mixture  of 
species  on  the  same  area.  This  is  because  it  is  simpler  and,  on 
the  whole,  a  pure  plantation  of  a  tree  well  adapted  to  the  soil 
is  more  satisfactory  than  a  mixture.  It  is  well,  however,  for 
the  reasons  mentioned  in  discussing  pure  and  mixed  forests,  to 
plant  small  areas  with  different  species.     Commercial  planting. 


By  permission  of  the  Connecticut  State  Forester. 

Fig.  23.  —  A  plantation  of  white  pine  about  8  years  old  spaced  6  by  12  feet. 
This  is  too  wide. 

whether  pure  or  mixed,  should,  however,  be  restricted  to  a  few 
species  of  known  value  and  adapted  to  the  site.  White,  red,  and 
Scotch  pines,  Norway  spruce,  European  larch,  white  ash,  and 
red  oak  are  the  standard  trees  for  commercial  plantations  in 
New  England.  On  the  whole,  conifers  or  softwood  trees  in 
contrast  to  the  hardwoods  recommend  themselves  especially  for 
forest  planting  for  the  following  reasons : 

1.  Softwood  lumber  is  in  greater  demand  for  general  purposes, 
and,  therefore,  commands  the  best  prices. 

2.  The  conifers,   such  as  pine  and  spruce,   are  more  rapid 
growing  than  the  hardwoods. 


FOREST  PLANTING   AND   SEEDING  7 1 

3.  The  conifers  yield  more  lumber  to  the  acre  in  a  given  length 
of  time  than  deciduous  species,  because  the  trees  stand  closer 
together  and  grow  faster. 

4.  Much  of  the  land  to  be  planted  is  of  very  light  soil  and  is, 
therefore,  better  adapted  to  such  trees  as  the  pine  than  to  any 
other  species. 

The  question  of  the  proper  spacing  of  trees  is  one  which  has 
led  to  endless  discussion  on  the  part  of  European  foresters,  and  it 
must  be  decided  in  every  case  according  to  the  owner's  particular 
aims.  In  many  of  the  early  German  plantations  the  trees  were 
spaced  not  farther  than  one  meter  (three  feet)  apart.  The 
general  tendency  to-day,  even  in  Europe  where  nursery  stock 
and  labor  are  still  comparatively  cheap,  is  toward  more  open 
spacing,  and  the  practice  thus  far  in  New  England  is  to  plant 
about  five  or  six  feet  apart. 

For  most  purposes  a  spacing  of  six  by  six  feet  is  recommended. 

The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  trees  required  to 
stock  one  acre  when  set  at  different  distances  apart. 

Distance  of  spacing  Number  of  trees  per  acre 

3  by  3  feet 4840 

4  by  4  feet 2723 

5  by  5  feet 1742 

6  by  6  feet 1210 

7  by  7  feet 889 

The  general  principles  underlying  spacing  may  be  stated  here 
and  the  planter  may  judge  for  himself  what  distance  best  meets 
his  own  requirements.  Close  planting  forces  the  trees  up  in 
order  to  secure  light,  and  thus  produces  a  rapid  height  growth. 
At  the  same  time  it  kills  the  lower  limbs  for  lack  of  light,  thus 
causing  natural  pruning.  The  result  is  a  long,  slender  log  fairly 
free  from  knots.  Open  planting,  on  the  other  hand,  produces  a 
large-branch  system,  a  rapid  diameter  growth,  especially  near 
the  base,  and  a  rather  slow  height  growth.  The  result  is  a  short, 
thick  log  tapering  rapidly  from  base  to  top  and  rather  knotty. 
For  the  production  of  high-grade  lumber  the  former  is  evidently 
to  be  advised;  for  a  heavy  production  of  fuel  wood,  pulp  wood, 


72 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


railroad  ties,  or  other  inferior  materials,  the  open  spacing  may 
be  more  profitable.  One  should  also  remember  that  tolerant 
trees  must  be  planted  closer  than  intolerant  trees  in  order  to 
secure  equally  good  pruning. 


Fig.  24.  —  A  block  of  3-year-old  white  pine  transplants;   the  best  stock  with  which  to 
start  a  commercial  plantation. 

Cost  of  planting  varies  enormously  and  depends  primarily  on 
the  stock  used,  price  of  labor,  spacing  of  the  plants,  and  condi- 
tion of  the  planting  site.  Often  adverse  weather  conditions  or 
other  factors  cause  heavy  losses,  and  extra  expense  is  required 
to  secure  a  complete  reproduction.  Good  stands  have  been 
secured  for  less  than  $5  per  acre  and  sometimes  more  than 
$30  per  acre  have  been  spent.  On  the  average  New  England 
planting  site,  using  three-year-old  transplants  at  $5.50  to  $6 
per  thousand,  set  six  by  six  feet  apart,  and  with  labor  at  $1.75 
per  day,  the  cost  per  acre  should  not  exceed  $15;  it  can  rarely 
be  brought  below  $11.  This  does  not  allow  for  the  unusual 
losses  which  sometimes  occur,  due  to  prolonged  droughts. 
Where  areas  as  large  as  several  thousand  acres  are  to  be  planted 
and  the  stock  is  grown  by  the  planter,  the  cost  may  be  a  few 
dollars  an  acre  less  than  this  estimate,  which  is  based  on  stock 
that  is  purchased. 


FOREST   PLANTING   AND  SEEDING  73 

The  success  of  seeding  is  governed  so  largely  by  chance  and 
weather  conditions  that  the  cost  of  a  successful  sowing  is  more 
uncertain  than  that  of  a  plantation,  and  cannot  be  figured 
accurately  in  advance.  The  few  successful  sowings  which  have 
come  under  the  observation  of  the  writers  have  cost  more  than 
the  amount  given  for  an  average  plantation.  It  is  believed 
when  sufficient  care  is  taken  in  preparing  the  site,  and  securing 
the  same  success  as  would  be  obtained  by  planting,  that  the  cost 
in  every  case  would  be  higher  than  that  of  the  plantation. 


CHAPTER  V. 

IMPROVEMENT   CUTTINGS. 

In  Chapter  II  the  different  methods  of  cutting  with  the  pur- 
pose of  securing  a  new  stand  (reproduction  cuttings)  were 
discussed.  Such  cuttings  are  needed  in  mature  timber  in  order 
that  a  young  stand  may  replace  the  old  one/  and  occur  only 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  life  of  the  stand.  There  is  then  a 
long  period  extending  from  the  time  that  the  old  stand  is  removed 
and  the  new  one  established  until  the  new  stand  has  itself  de- 
veloped to  maturity  and  become  ready  for  a  reproduction  cutting. 

During  this  period,  i.e.,  between  reproduction  cuttings,  there 
may  be,  and  in  a  stand  under  management  ordinarily  are,  several 
cuttings,  which  are  termed  improvement  cuttings.  Their  pur- 
pose is  to  improve  the  existing  stand  in  composition,  rate  of 
growth,  and  value  of  the  final  product,  without  any  attempt  to 
secure  reproduction. 

Improvement  cuttings  are  made  in  immature  stands,  ranging 
from  those  only  a  year  or  two  in  age  to  stands  nearly  ready  for 
reproduction  cuttings. 

Improvement  cuttings  may  advantageously  be  divided  into 
four  kinds,  as  follows,  each  of  which  will  be  separately  discussed : 

1.  Cleanings. 

2.  Liberation  cuttings. 

3.  Thinnings. 

4.  Damage  cuttings. 

I .  Cleanings.  —  As  a  stand  begins  to  grow  there  are  almost 
sure  to  be  certain  trees  present  which,  because  they  threaten  to 
injure  better  trees,  are  not  wanted.  These  trees  may  be  of  an 
inferior  species  or  they  may  simply  be  poor  individuals  of  some 

1  Artificial  reproduction,  i.e.,  planting  or  seeding  is  sometimes  employed. 


IMPROVEMENT   CUTTINGS  75 

valuable  species,  or  often  worthless  shrubs.  In  any  case,  they 
need  to  be  removed  in  order  that  the  stand  may  eventually  be 
of  the  highest  possible  character.  This  type  of  cutting  is  called 
a  cleaning,  and  always  takes  place  in  young  stands,  usually  when 
they  are  from  three  to  ten  years  of  age.  Frequently  one  cleaning 
is  not  suificient  and  another  must  be  made  three  to  five  years 
after  the  first. 

The  trees  removed  differ  but  little  in  age  from  those  left  and 
oftentimes  are  the  same  age  but  of  more  rapid  growth.  When 
a  few  years  older  they  are  usually  of  the  type  termed  "advance 
growth,"  by  which  is  meant  trees  that  seeded  in  first  and  obtained 
a  few  years  start  of  the  rest  of  the  stand.  Because  of  their  com- 
parative freedom  from  side  crowding  they  have  rather  branchy 
crowns  and  will  not  develop  into  high-grade  trees. 

The  expense  of  the  cleaning  can  often  be  reduced  and  the 
purpose  as  well  accomphshed  by  lopping  off  the  tops  of  the  trees 
instead  of  cutting  them  at  the  base.  They  should  be  lopped  back 
far  enough  so  that  the  tops  of  the  trees  to  be  freed  are  above  them. 

One  is  tempted  in  making  a  cleaning  to  remove  all  trees  of 
inferior  species,  all  shrubs,  and  all  poor  individuals  from  the 
stand.  But  from  both  the  financial  and  silvicultural  standpoints 
only  the  material  should  be  cut  which  is  actually  hindering  the 
development  of  better  trees.  If  all  inferior  species  were  to  be 
cut,  great  gaps  might  be  left  in  the  stand,  since  there  may  be  no 
valuable  trees  in  mixture  with  the  poor  ones.  In  such  a  place 
a  cleaning  need  not  be  made. 

A  small  hatchet  or  a  brush  hook  is  an  excellent  tool  with  which 
to  make  cleanings  where  the  material  is  small  or  the  tops  are  to 
be  lopped,  but  often  in  stands  five  to  ten  years  of  age  an  axe 
is  needed. 

Inasmuch  as  a  cleaning  is  in  such  young  stands  that  no  mer- 
chantable material  is  secured  from  the  cutting  it  results  in  a 
present  financial  loss.  Cleanings  should  only  be  made  where  a 
small  expenditure  will  be  justified  by  the  improved  development 
of  the  stand.  A  stand  of  white  pine  overtopped  by  gray  birch 
is  an  example  of   where  they  are   justifiable.      The    forest   of 


76 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


nearly  pure  pine  which  can  be  secured  by  removing  the  over- 
topping birch  will  be  so  valuable  as  to  more  than  pay  the  expense 
of  the  cleaning. 

The  cost  depends  so  largely  upon  the  amount  and  size  of  the 
material  to  be  removed  that  it  may  range  from  a  few  cents  to 
several  dollars  per  acre.  An  expenditure  of  more  than  $3  per 
acre  for  a  cleaning  is  usually  unnecessary  and  the  work  can  often 
be  done  for  25  to  50  cents  per  acre. 

As  a  general  rule  cleanings  should  be  made  as  needed  in  all 
plantations  to  protect  the  planted  species,  and  wherever  there 
is  a  wide  difference  in  value  between  the  species  being  injured 
and  the  one  injuring  it.  A  cleaning  is  an  intensive  forestry 
operation  and  hence  in  many  places  is  impracticable. 


By  permission  ,/  //;,  <  oinwrlicul  Stale  Forester. 

Fig.  25.  —  The  spreading  hardwoods  should  be  taken  out  to  liberate  the  seedling  growth. 

2.  Liberation  Cuttings. — Liberation  cuttings  are  used  in 
young  stands  from  a  year  or  two  old  to  those  of  middle  age. 
The  operation  consists  in  removing  older  trees  which,  by  their 


IMPROVEMENT   CUTTINGS 


77 


widespreading  crowns  are  interfering  with  a  younger  growth  that 
it  is  desired  to  favor.  Unhke  cleanings  where  the  trees  removed 
dififer  in  age  from  those  left  by  only  a  few  years,  liberation 


Fig.  26.  —  A  liberation  cutting  is  needed  to  remove  the  large  oak  to  free  the  young 
growth  which  is  already  feeling  the  effects  of  the  crowding. 


cuttings  remove  trees  of  a  much  older  age  class  than  the  re- 
mainder of  the  stand. 

A  study  of  the  diagrams  of  cleanings  and  liberation  cuttings 
on  page  78  will  make  this  point  clear.  Two  diagrams  of  Hbera- 
tion  cuttings  are  given.  The  first  is  in  a  very  young  stand 
of  seedlings  with  large  trees  high  above  them.  This  form  is 
very  similar  to  the  final  cutting  under  the  shelterwood  system 


78 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


M\l 


mi 


Fig.  27.  —  A  cleaning.  The  stand  contains  white  pine  5-8  years  old,  overtopped  by  gray 
birch  6-10  years  old.  The  gray  birch  should  be  cut  out  or  lopped  back.  Two  older 
white  pines  (18  years  of  age)  forming  "advance  growth"  should  also  be  cut,  as  they  will 
produce  knotty  lumber  and  suppress  several  most  promising  trees. 


To  be  out. 
100  yt-ars  of  age- 


9?%maa-.  I  l..oX^>?y;>?$'^^?l^^ 


Fig. 


-  A  liberation  cutting  in  which  the  young  stand  has  not  yet  been  seriously  affected 
by  the  overtopping  trees. 


Fig.  29.  —  A  liberation  cutting  in  a  middle-aged  stand,  where  the  crowns  are  ab-eady  de- 
formed by  the  large  trees  which  should  be  at  once  cut  to  prevent  further  injury. 


IMPROVEMENT   CUTTINGS  79 

of  reproduction.  In  Fig.  29  a  middle-aged  stand  is  shown  with 
older  trees  interfering.  Here  the  crowns  of  the  main  stand  have 
reached  the  crowns  of  the  interfering  trees  and  are  already  some- 
what deformed.  If  the  cutting  were  delayed  much  longer  the 
stand  would  be  seriously  injured. 

The  material  removed  in  liberation  cuttings  is  of  merchantable 
size  either  for  timber  or  cordwood,  but  is  usually  of  poor  quality, 
being  knotty  and  frequently  extremely  limby.  From  the  size 
of  the  trees  to  be  cut  it  often  appears  that  a  handsome  profit  can 
be  made,  but  owing  to  the  scattered  location  of  the  trees  singly 
among  younger  trees,  the  logging  is  usually  expensive  and  the 
trees,  on  account  of  their  widespreading  crowns  and  large  limbs, 
are  hard  to  cut  up.  In  most  cases  the  trees  can  be  disposed 
of  for  enough  to  at  least  pay  the  costs  of  the  operation;  so 
that  no  financial  loss  is  ordinarily  required  in  making  hberation 
cuttings. 

Liberation  cuttings  are  needed  especially  in  abandoned  fields 
which  have  gradually  reverted  to  forest,  or  on  cut-over  lands 
where  in  previous  cuttings  poor  individuals  had  been  allowed  to 
stand. 

As  liberation  cuttings  pay  for  themselves  they  have  a  wider 
range  of  application  in  practical  work  than  do  cleanings,  but  at 
the  same  time,  since  the  material  removed  is  of  a  low  grade,  it 
cannot  readily  be  sold  where  the  markets  are  poor.  A  good  rule 
is  to  make  liberation  cuttings  wherever  the  material  will  at  least 
cover  the  cost  of  removal. 

3.  Thinnings.  —  As  a  young  stand  of  trees  grows  older,  indi- 
viduals which  at  first  had  ample  space  for  development  become 
crowded.  There  commences  a  struggle  between  them,  which 
becomes  more  intense  year  by  year,  for  Hght,  growing  space, 
moisture,  and  nourishment.  As  the  struggle  goes  on  certain 
trees  obtain  a  slight  advantage  over  their  neighbors  and  may 
finally  succeed  in  completely  overtopping  and  kilhng  them.  In 
accompKshing  this,  however,  the  leading  trees,  as  well  as  those 
overtopped,  are  inevitably  restricted  in  crown  development,  and 
therefore  are  retarded  in  rate  of  growth  and  prevented  from 


8o  FORESTRY    IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

attaining  the  size  possible  if  they  had  not  been  so  seriously 
hindered  by  the  competition  with  neighboring  trees. 

In  order  to  prevent  part  of  this  competition  and  to  keep  the 
leading  trees  in  the  stand  growing  at  a  rapid  rate  thinnings  are 
made.^     Thinnings  remove  the  trees  which  have  fallen  behind 


Fig.  30.  —  Plantation  of  white  pine  and  European  larch  on  first  quality  soil.  The  stand 
has  just  received  a  C  grade  thinning.  Total  yield  40  cords  per  acre.  Amount  cut 
16  cords  per  acre.  Age  27  years.  In  the  foreground  most  of  the  pine  was  removed, 
leaving  the  larch. 


the  best  trees  of  the  stand  but  which  still  crowd  them  and  ham- 
per their  development. 

It  is  convenient  in  discussing  thinnings  to  divide  the  trees  in 
a  stand  into  five  classes,  called  crown  classes,  depending  on  the 
relative  position  of  each  class  with  respect  to  the  other  trees  in 
the  stand. 

^  The  struggle  for  existence  is  best  noticed  in  even-aged  stands  where  trees  of 
the  same  age  are  competing.  It  is  in  such  stands  (even-aged)  that  thinnings  are 
particularly  needed,  although  in  forests  of  other  forms  there  will  be  found  small 
even-aged  groups  here  and  there  in  which  thinnings  are  useful. 


IMPROVEMENT   CUTTINGS 


8l 


These  crown  classes  are  as  follows: 

Dominant;  which  contains  the  leading  trees  having  compara- 
tively symmetrical  crowns  and  receiving  full  light. 

Codominant;  which  includes  trees  a  Httle  shorter  than  the 
dominant  ones  and  with  smaller  crowns  crowded  on  the  side. 


Fig.  31.  —  The  .-aiiic  ijlaiUdiiuu  bciuie  I liiuiiiii.'.  Xuic  the  dcuse  dark  appearance  of  the 
stand  in  contrast  to  its  appearance  after  thinning.  Ahhough  the  stand  is  27  years 
old  the  dead  branches  still  persist  on  the  trees  down  to  the  ground.  On  the  trees  in 
the  foreground  the  lower  dead  limbs  have  been  knocked  off. 


Intermediate;  comprising  trees  shorter  than  those  in  the  pre- 
ceding class  and  with  crowns  open  to  Light  only  from  above  and 
seriously  crowded  on  all  sides. 

Suppressed;  including  all  Kving  trees  with  crowns  entirely 
overtopped.     They  can  obtain  only  filtered  light. 

Dead;  containing  all  standing  dead  trees. 

There  may  be  in  a  stand  a  wide  range  from  dominant  to  dead 
trees  and  it  may  often  be  difficult  to  distinguish  in  which  of  two 
adjacent  classes  a  tree  belongs.  This  is  especially  true  between 
dominant  and  codominant  trees  and  between  codominant  and 


82  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

intermediate.  As  a  general  rule  dominant  and  the  better  co- 
dominant  trees  are  favored  in  thinnings,  while  the  other  three 
classes  are  cut  out.  Just  what  is  taken  out  depends  mainly  on 
the  heaviness  of  the  thinning,  which  may  range  from  an  extremely 
light  cutting  to  one  as  heavy  as  a  reproduction  cutting.     The 


Fig.  32.  —  A  stand  of  beech  and  oak  iu  Europe,  40  lo  50  years  of  age.     A  light  thinning  has 
just  been  finished. 

following  live  classes  of  thinnings  are  recognized,  depending  on 
the  heaviness  of  the  cutting: 

Grade  A. — Light  thinning;  removing  dead  and  suppressed 
trees. 

Grade  B.  —  Moderate  thinning;  removing  dead,  suppressed, 
and  the  poorer  intermediate  trees. 

Grade  C.  —  Heavy  thinning,  removing  dead,  suppressed,  inter- 
mediate and  a  few  codominant  trees. 

Grade  D.  —  Very  heavy  thinning,  removing  dead,  suppressed, 
intermediate  and  codominant  trees. 

Accretion  Cutting.  —  Any  thinning  heavier  than  Grade  D. 


IMPROVEMENT  CUTTINGS 


83 


Which  grade  to  use  depends  mainly  on  the  purpose  for  which 
the  stand  is  managed.  Light  and  moderate  thinnings  favor  the 
production  of  high-grade  timber  free  from  knots.  This  is  the 
principal  advantage  of  the  competition  between  trees  in  a  dense 
stand,  and  thinnings  of  Grades  A  and  B  do  not  greatly  lessen 
the  competition  in  a  stand,  since  this  is  largely  between  trees 
of  the  intermediate,  codominant,  and  dominant  classes. 


By  permission  of  the  Connecticut  State  Forester. 

Fig.  33-  —  A  white  pine  stand  34  years  old  secured  by  artificial  seeding, 
thinning  has  just  been  made.  ; 


A  C  grade 


Heavy  thinnings,  by  giving  the  trees  ample  growing  space, 
result  in  the  production  of  shorter-boled  and  more  knotty  trees; 
and,  on  account  of  the  greater  growing  space,  in  more  rapid 
growth  and  higher  yield  in  a  given  time.  Where  quantity  with- 
out regard  to  the  highest  quality  is  wanted  heavier  thinnings 
are  needed  than  where  timber  of  high  technical  quality  is  the 
primary  consideration. 

In  general,  as  the  thinnings  increase  in  severity,  the  diameter 


84  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

and  hence  volume  growth  of  the  trees  rises,  but  there  always  is  a 
point  beyond  which  heavier  thinnings,  while  possibly  still  in- 
creasing the  rate  of  growth  on  the  individual  trees,  lower  the 
growth  of  the  stand  as  a  whole.  This  is  because  the  gaps  be- 
tween trees  become  so  large  that  the  total  growth  per  acre  from 
the  few  fast-growing  trees  is  less  than  would  be  secured  from 
those  left  after  a  lighter  thinning. 

Accretion  cuttings  are  too  heavy  to  secure  the  highest  growth 
per  acre,  although  phenomenal  growth  on  individual  trees  may 
result. 

Thinnings  of  Grades  A  and  B  interfere  so  Httle  with  the 
natural  competition  that  their  effect  in  increasing  the  rate  of 
growth  of  a  stand  is  negligible.  A  Grade  C  thinning  is  needed 
to  appreciably  increase  the  growth  rate,  and  at  the  same  time 
this  grade  does  not  so  open  the  stand  as  to  prevent  the  pro- 
duction of  clear  timber.  For  most  owners  in  New  England, 
Grade  C  or  occasionally  Grade  D  thinnings  will  be  the  most 
valuable. 

In  making  thinnings  of  whatever  grade  it  should  always  be 
remembered  that  the  trees  to  be  cut  are  chosen  on  the  basis  of 
their  crown  development.  Too  often  a  beginner  examines  the 
spacing  of  the  trees  on  the  ground  and  endeavors  to  cut  wherever 
the  number  of  trees  is  great,  with  the  object  of  securing  a  uni- 
form spacing  of  the  trunks.  This  is  altogether  wrong  and  can 
be  easily  avoided  if  the  crowns  of  the  trees  are  used  as  the  guide 
in  selection. 

Another  method  of  thinning,  somewhat  different  from  the 
one  already  described,  is  known  as  the  French  method  because 
of  its  origin  and  use  in  France.  By  this  method  certain  trees 
are  selected,  when  the  stand  is  about  thirty  years  of  age,  which 
will  be  favored  and  are  to  form  the  final  crop  at  the  end  of  the 
rotation.  The  number  of  trees  per  acre  to  be  selected  varies 
with  the  species,  the  product  to  be  produced,  and  various  other 
factors,  but  for  the  purpose  of  this  discussion  may  be  said  to 
range  from  one  to  two  hundred. 

When  these  trees  have  been  picked  out  a  thinning  is  made 


IMPROVEMENT   CUTTINGS 


85 


with  the  object  of  giving  them  every  opportunity  for  rapid 
growth.  They  are  set  free  by  cutting  the  surrounding  trees 
which  are  at  the  time  seriously  crowding  them.  The  cutting 
is  made  regardless  of  the  crown  class  of  those  cut.  Codominant 
and  dominant  trees  as  well  as  those  of  the  lower  crown  classes 
are  removed  if  hindering  the  chosen  trees. 

A  second  principle  of  the  method  is  that  practically  nothing 
is  removed  unless  it  actually  is  interfering  with  the  chosen  in- 


By  permission  of  ike  Connecticut  State  Forester. 

Fig.  34.  —  Same  stand  as  in  Fig.  33.  but  2  years  after  the  thinning.  Poplar  and  gray 
birch  have  reproduced  abundantly,  largely  owing  to  the  abundant  light  which  was 
admitted  to  the  forest  floor.  A  lighter  thinning  would  have  encouraged  white  pine 
reproduction. 


dividual.  The  only  exception  is  in  the  case  of  dead  trees  or 
those  that  will  die  in  a  very  few  years.  These  are  cut  but  the 
suppressed  and  intermediate  classes  are  allowed  to  remain  if 
not  hindering  the  chosen  trees.  The  French  method  really 
amounts  to  a  Grade  D  thinning  in  the  upper  crown  classes,  and 
a  Grade  A  thinning  in  the  lower  classes,  taking  out  the  poorest 
material. 

The  chief  advantage  of  the  method  is  that  the  trees  to  form 


86  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

the  final  crop  being  selected  so  early  can  be  kept  free  and  growing 
rapidly.  It  is  thought  that  equally  good  timber  can  be  pro- 
duced faster  under  the  French  method  of  thinning  than  under 
that  ordinarily  used.  Up  to  the  present  time  there  is  no  ade- 
quate data  to  conclusively  prove  this.  With  poor  markets  the 
method  may  sometimes  be  employed  when  another  could  not, 
since  some  larger-sized  material  is  secured  from  the  heavy  cutting 
in  the  dominant  and  codominant  classes,  while  the  lower  classes, 
furnishing  cordwood  principally,  are  left  uncut. 

Silviculturally  the  lower  classes  of  trees  assist  in  forcing  the 
height  growth  of  the  chosen  trees,  and  furnish  a  good  cover  to 
the  soil  which  is  in  this  way  better  protected  than  in  Grades  C 
and  D  thinnings  as  ordinarily  made. 

A  practical  disadvantage  of  the  French  method  is  that  the 
numerous  suppressed  and  intermediate  trees  left  standing  make 
the  execution  of  the  thinning  difficult.  The  felling  of  the  trees 
is  often  badly  hampered,  and  considerable  breakage  of  standing 
trees  occurs.  Moreover,  the  piling  and  removal  of  the  wood  is 
made  more  expensive  by  the  many  standing  small  trees. 

In  actually  carrying  out  a  thinning  in  the  field  it  is  often 
advantageous,  and,  in  fact  necessary,  to  secure  the  best  results, 
not  to  hold  rigidly  to  a  thinning  of  any  given  grade.  For  in- 
stance, a  Grade  C  thinning  may  be  the  kind  desired,  but  where 
dominant  trees  of  a  worthless  species  or  diseased  trees  occur, 
it  is  best  to  cut  them,  making  in  such  places  a  heavier  cutting. 
The  theory  of  thinnings  as  given  here  is  exceedingly  simple  but 
in  application  many  problems  will  come  up  which  cannot  be 
covered  in  the  space  of  this  discussion,  and  are  best  solved 
through  field  experience. 

The  lessening  of  the  competition  between  the  individual  trees 
which  effects  an  increase  in  the  rate  of  growth  has  already  been 
mentioned  as  the  chief  purpose  of  thinnings,  but  the  results 
which  come  through  the  aid  of  thinnings  have  not  yet  been  fully 
stated. 

The  increase  in  rate  of  growth  of  the  individual  trees  results 
in  obtaining  trees  of  merchantable  size  several  years  sooner  than 


IMPROVEMENT   CUTTINGS 


87 


is  possible  in  an  unthinned  stand.  In  other  words,  thinnings 
enable  the  forester  to  shorten  the  rotation  in  which  a  given 
product  is  produced.  This  shortening  may  be  as  great  as  twenty- 
five  per  cent.     For  example,  if  an  unthinned  stand  of  pure 


S9g^ 


By  permission  of  the  Connecticut  State  Forester. 
35.  —  Portion  of  the  same  stand  as  shown  in  Fig.  33.     Here 


Fig-  35-  —  Portion  of  the  same  stand  as  shown  in  Fig.  33.  Here  a  heavy  D  grade  thinning 
was  made  and  a  large  number  of  the  trees  were  broiien  off  by  the  wind.  The  trees  were 
too  slender  for  such  a  heavy  thinning. 


chestnut  is  merchantable  for  ties  in  forty  years,  a  similar  stand 
which  has  been  properly  thinned  should  have  trees  of  the  same 
size  in  thirty  years. 

Besides  increasing  the  growth  of  the  individual  trees  the  total 
yield  of  the  stand  is  raised,  by  which  is  meant  that  in  a  single 
rotation  (or  given  number  of  years)  more  material  is  produced 


88  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

by  a  thinned  stand  than  by  a  similar  one  un thinned.  There  may 
be  as  much  as  thirty  per  cent  added  volume  produced  by  the 
thinned  stand.  This  increased  production  is  made  possible  be- 
cause the  yield  from  the  thinnings  largely  utihzes  material  which 
in  an  unthinned  stand  dies  and  decays  before  the  final  cutting. 
The  struggle  between  the  trees  is  slowly  kilhng  the  weaker 
individuals.  As  the  stand  grows  older,  they  pass  from  the  co- 
dominant  to  the  intermediate  class,  then  to  the  suppressed,  and 
finally  are  numbered  among  the  dead.  The  great  difference  in 
number  of  trees  per  acre  between  young  and  mature  stands 
(both  fully  stocked),  which  is  apparent  on  the  most  casual  inves- 
tigation, gives  an  idea  of  the  large  number  of  trees  and  quantity 
of  material  lost  through  decay  in  an  unthinned  stand.  Besides 
utilizing  material  otherwise  wasted,  the  one  thinned  when  ready 
for  harvesting  will  have  as  great  or  sometimes  even  greater  vol- 
ume than  the  unthinned  stand. 

A  higher  grade  product,  taking  the  average  for  the  whole 
stand,  is  furnished  by  the  thinned  than  by  the  unthinned  stand. 
In  the  latter  there  may  be  a  few  exceptionally  fine  trees,  but 
with  them  are  many  inferior  specimens,  merchantable  only  for 
cordwood.  In  the  former  a  smaller  number  of  trees  per  acre 
will  be  found  on  which  the  growth  has  been  concentrated. 
Individually  none  of  them  may  contain  such  high-grade  timber 
as  the  exceptional  tree  in  the  unthinned  stand,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  every  tree  can  be  used  for  better  products^  than  cordwood 
and  the  average  value  per  tree  is  much  higher. 

Thinnings  raise  the  grade  of  the  final  product  in  another  way: 
by  enabling  the  forester  to  eliminate  worthless  species  from  the 
stand  when  it  is  young.  Oftentimes  in  unthinned  stands  a 
species  of  low  lumber  value  will  be  found  occupying  a  prominent 
place  in  mature  stands,  but  in  properly  thinned  stands  this  need 
never  happen. 

Theoretically  thinnings  should  be  begun  as  soon  as  the  com- 
petition between  the  trees  becomes  strong.  This  occurs  usually 
when  a  stand  is  ten  to  twenty  years  of  age.     Thinnings  in  such 

^  With  light  thinnings  timber  of  high  technical  value  can  be  produced. 


IMPROVEMENT   CUTTINGS  89 

young  stands  ordinarily  do  not  yield  material  salable  even  as 
cordwood  under  present  market  conditions  in  New  England. 
The  first  thinning  should  be  deferred  until  the  material  taken 
out  is  large  enough  for  cordwood  and  the  returns  will  at  least 
cover  the  cost  of  the  operation.  This  will  rarely  occur  before 
the  stand  is  twenty  years  old,  and  not  later  than  the  thirtieth 
year. 

Thinnings  should  be  repeated  whenever  needed.     Unless  the 
thinning  was  very  heavy  this  should  be  in  five  to  ten  years. 


Fig.  36.  —  AC  grade  thinning  in  a  38-year-o!d  stand  of  mixed  hardwoods  containing  oak, 
chestnut,  maple,  black  and  yellow  birches.  Yield  per  acre  27  cords;  actually  cut  6\ 
cords  per  acre. 


The  time  for  making  the  next  one  can  be  judged  by  observing 
the  crowns.  If  the  openings  left  by  the  previous  cutting  have 
been  filled  and  the  crowns  of  the  trees  are  once  more  in  close 
contact,  competition  has  again  assumed  serious  proportions  and 
it  is  time  for  another  thinning. 

The  best  method  is  to  make  small  openings  in  the  crown  cover 
which  will  close  together  within  a  few  years,  necessitating  an 
early  repetition  of  the  operation.  When  only  small  gaps  in  the 
cover  are  made  there  is  no  danger  of  the  trees  producing  knotty 


90 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


timber  nor  of  the  stand  becoming  insufficiently  stocked  with 
trees.  The  soil  is  best  protected  by  light  thinnings,  frequently 
repeated.  They  should  be  carried  on  until  the  time  comes  to 
start  reproduction  cuttings. 

At  the  present  time  in  many  quarters  there  is  a  prejudice 
against  making  thinnings  through  ignorance  of  their  value  and 
especially  through  behef  that  they  are  impracticable.  One  objec- 
tion raised  is  that  the  uncut  trees  will  be  thrown  by  wind.     There 


I'lg-  37-  —  The  same  stand  as  in  the  previous  picture  but  3  years  after  the  thinning.    The 
crowns  have  already  closed  together  and  another  thinning  could  safely  be  made. 


is  sometimes  danger  of  this  on  wet  ground,  with  shallow-rooted 
species,  on  exposed  sites  and  in  stands  past  middle  age  when 
thinned  for  the  first  time.  In  such  stands  the  trees  often  have 
very  small  crowns  and  root  systems  and  depend  on  each  other 
for  support.  If  thinnings  are  begun  when  the  stand  is  twenty 
to  thirty  years  of  age  and  made  light  there  will  not  be  any  large 
loss  due  to  windfall. 

Another  objection  is  made  that  the  trees,  in  being  cut  and 
removed,  will  injure  the  standing  trees.  This  arises  through  the 
mistaken  idea  that  the  smaller  trees  are  left  and  the  larger  are 


IMPROVEMENT   CUTTINGS  9I 

cut,  while  the  reverse  is  true.  Thinnings  are  often  confused  in 
the  lay  mind  with  the  selection  cutting  described  in  Chapter  II. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  removal  of  the  lower  crown  classes  rarely 
inflicts  a  serious  injury  on  a  standing  tree. 

The  cost  of  cutting  and  removing  the  material  is  somewhat 
greater  than  in  cases  where  the  stand  is  cut  clear,  but  there  is  not 
the  great  difference  sometimes  assumed.  The  added  cost  will, 
of  course,  vary  with  the  conditions,  but  ten  to  twenty-five  per 
cent  will  represent  the  usual  range.  Frequently  unfamiharity 
with  the  style  of  cutting  and  unwillingness  to  learn  on  the  part 
of  the  woodsmen  are  the  chief  factors  in  increasing  the  cost. 

Thinnings  in  young  stands  yield  only  cordwood  and  in  stands 
of  all  ages  a  large  per  cent  of  the  material  cut  is  cordwood. 
Where  this  cannot  be  sold  at  a  profit,  as  is  the  case  in  portions  of 
New  England,  thinnings  are  not  practicable.  Usually  in  conif- 
erous stands  they  can  be  made  under  poorer  market  conditions 
than  in  hardwood  forests,  as  in  the  former  smaller-sized  logs  are 
cut  into  lumber  or  put  into  other  products  of  greater  value  than 
cordwood. 

4.  Damage  Cuttings.  —  Frequently  a  cutting  is  advisable  in  a 
stand  with  the  purpose  of  removing  and  utilizing  material  which 
has  been  damaged  by  wind,  insects,  fungi,  fire,  or  other  causes. 
It  is  altogether  too  common  a  happening  to  have  a  large  per  cent 
of  the  trees  in  a  stand  killed  by  fire.  Such  a  cutting,  intended 
to  take  out  injured  material,  is  called  a  damage  cutting.  It  is 
made  without  regard  to  the  crown  classes  or  species  of  the  trees 
cut,  simply  taking  out  all  injured  individuals.  As  the  extent  of 
injury  varies  greatly  so  does  the  severity  of  damage  cuttings. 
They  may  range  from  the  removal  of  occasional  trees  to  clear 
cuttings.  In  cases  where  the  injured  stand  is  mature  or  nearly 
mature  it  is  often  possible  to  begin  the  reproduction  cuttings 
early,  and  arrange  them  so  as  to  utihze  the  damaged  trees. 
But  in  immature  stands  special  damage  cuttings  are  made  in 
case  of  injury.  Damage  cuttings,  so  heavy  as  to  remove  a 
large  percentage  of  the  trees,  call  for  a  sacrifice  in  immature 
stands,  as  the  trees  are  cut  before  reaching  the  most  profitable 


92  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

size.  However,  as  long  as  fire,  wind,  insects,  etc.,  cause  ex- 
tensive injury  in  the  forests,  damage  cuttings  are  demanded 
as  a  regular  part  of  management,  to  make  the  best  of  a  bad 
situation. 

When  promptly  made,  before  decay  has  progressed  far,  dam- 
age cuttings  usually  yield  material  of  merchantable  size.  Where 
the  returns  from  material  taken  out  will  not  pay  the  expenses  of 
removal,  damage  cuttings  are  not  ordinarily  recommended. 


Fig.  38.  —  A  damage  cutting.  Note  the  undergrowth  of  grass  and  weeds  which  has  started 
as  a  result  of  the  heavy  cutting.  To  avoid  such  undergrowth  improvement  cuttings 
should  be  made  as  light  as  possible.  The  fallen  tree,  weakened  at  the  base  by  fire  and 
fungi,  has  been  broken  off  by  the  wind. 


Schedule  of  Improvement  Cuttings.  —  In  order  to  illustrate  the 
relative  time  at  which  the  different  kinds  of  improvement 
cuttings  are  made,  the  following  table  has  been  drawn  up  for 
a  planted  stand  of  white  pine,  this  particular  type  of  forest 
serving  as  a  good  example  for  even-aged  stands  of  other  species. 
The  rotation  has  been  set  at  sixty  years.  If  it  was  intended  to 
reproduce  the  stand  naturally,  a  reproduction  cutting  would  be 
substituted  for  the  last  thinning. 


IMPROVEMENT  CUTTINGS 


93 


SCHEDULE  OF  IMPROVEMENT  CUTTINGS  FOR  A  WHITE  PINE 

PLANTATION. 


Age  of  stand. 

Cleanings. 

Liberation  cuttings. 

Thinnings. 

Damage 

cuttings. 

Years. 
4 
7 

X 

In  the  case  of  a  plan- 
tation the  liberation 
cuttings,  should  any 
be  needed,  are  best 
made  just  before  it 
is     established     or 
within  the  first  five 

X 
X 
X 
X 

Made  only 
in     case 
stand 

3° 
40 

5° 

suffers 

injury. 

60 

End  of  rota 
erated  nat 

tion.     Stand  cut  clear  and  area  planted,  or  regen- 
urally  as  described  in  Chapter  II. 

Crosses  indicate  cuttings. 


Methods  of  Controlling  Cuttings.  —  In  order  to  be  sure  that  the 
style  of  cutting  desired  is  actually  carried  out  on  any  particular 
tract,  it  is  necessary  to  oversee  the  work  with  great  care.  This 
is  so  whether  an  improvement  or  reproduction  cutting  is  made. 
It  is  especially  true  where  the  cutting  is  done  by  a  contractor,  or 
is  in  charge  of  old  lumberjacks,  trained  to  wasteful  methods  and 
unwilling  to  accept  new  ideas. 

Control  of  the  cutting  can  be  assured  best  by  marking  all  trees 
to  be  cut  (or  those  to  be  left)  and  frequently  inspecting  the  cut- 
tings to  see  that  the  marking  is  being  followed,  or  by  outlining 
the  general  plan  of  cutting  to  a  foreman  and  then  frequently 
inspecting  his  work  to  be  sure  that  he  carries  out  the  plan 
correctly. 

The  choice  of  the  method  of  control  will  be  mainly  determined 
by  the  style  of  cutting. 

In  thinnings  it  is  best  to  mark  carefully  either  the  trees  to 
be  cut  or  those  to  be  left.  Cleanings,  liberation  cuttings,  and 
damage  cuttings  (because  in  making  them  it  is  usually  a  simpler 
proposition  to  recognize  what  should  be  removed)  can  often  be 
satisfactorily  controlled  by  furnishing  the  foremen  in  charge 
with  general  instructions  and  then  looking  over  the  work  at 
frequent  intervals.  Many  times,  however,  the  trees  to  be  cut 
in  liberation  and  damage  cuttings  should  be  marked. 


94  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

In  reproduction  cuttings,  where  clear  cutting  is  to  take  place, 
laying  out  the  areas  to  be  cut  suffices.  Where  seed  trees  are 
to  be  left,  or  the  selection  system  or  one  calling  for  only  a  partial 
clearance  is  to  be  used,  marking  of  the  trees  is  advisable. 

It  may  seem  as  though  in  a  selection  cutting  the  use  of  a  diam- 
eter limit  would  take  the  place  of  marking,  but  there  are  so  many 
cases  in  every  operation  where  trees  above  the  limit  should  be 
left  and  those  below  cut,  that  the  trees  should  be  marked,  even 
when  a  diameter  hmit  roughly  controls  the  cutting. 


[y.: 


Fig-  39-  —  A  damage  cutting  in  a  stand  of  chestnut  and  oak.  Fire  has  injured  many  trees 
and  the  chestnut  bark  disease  was  present.  After  the  cutting,  an  open  stand  of  the 
fire-resistant  oak  remained.     The  material  cut  was  too  small  for  anything  but  cordwood. 


In  marking  the  trees,  either  those  to  be  cut  or  those  to  be  left 
may  be  marked.  Usually  it  is  best  to  adopt  the  easiest  method. 
Thus,  on  areas  to  be  cut  clear,  with  patches  of  seed  trees  to  be 
left,  the  few  seed  trees  should  be  marked;  but  in  a  selection 
cutting,  where  comparatively  few  trees  are  to  be  removed,  these 
should  be  marked. 

The  trees  can  be  marked  by  axe  blazes  or  by  dabs  of  paint. 
To  insure  full  control  of  a  cutting  it  is  best  to  mark  the  base  of 
the  trees  below  the  point  of  cutting,  as  well  as  a  point  easily  seen 


IMPROVEMENT  CUTTINGS  95 

three  to  five  feet  above  ground.  Then,  after  the  trees  are  felled, 
inspection  of  the  stumps  shows  whether  they  were  marked  for 
removal. 

If  axe  blazes  are  used  for  marks  it  is  well  to  have  a  distinctive 
stamp  on  the  head  of  the  axe  and  stamp  each  blaze,  thus  pre- 
venting marking  by  unauthorized  parties. 

Pruning.  —  Pruning,  as  used  in  forestry,  really  should  be 
classed  as  a  type  of  improvement  cutting,  for  its  purpose  is  to 
improve  the  quality  of  the  crop.  It  is  an  operation  which  as  yet 
has  been  Httle  used,  and  will  be  used  only  in  occasional  cases, 
where  forest  management  can  be  on  a  highly  intensive  scale, 
and  with  certain  species,  like  white  pine,  in  which  natural  prun- 
ing is  poor,  even  when  grown  in  a  crowded  stand. 

Pruning  should  only  be  practiced  where  clear  lumber  is  wanted, 
and  where  such  lumber  is  sufficiently  valuable  to  pay  the  cost 
of  the  operation.  The  way  in  which  pruning  raises  the  value  of 
the  forest  crop  is  through  the  early  removal  of  lower  limbs, 
allowing  the  production  of  clear  lumber  free  from  knots.  (See 
Fig.  40.) 

Forest  pruning  should  be  restricted  to  the  removal  of  dead 
limbs.  There  are  two  reasons  why  the  removal  of  live  limbs  is 
bad;  first,  because  the  wounds  left  by  the  pruning  of  live  limbs 
offer  good  opportunities  for  the  entrance  of  fungi  or  insects,  and 
second,  because  the  removal  of  live  limbs  disturbs  the  balance 
between  the  crown  and  root  systems  of  the  tree,  and  may  often 
result  in  retarding  its  growth.  It  is  claimed,  also,  that  in  the 
case  of  some  species  pruning  of  live  Hmbs  causes  loose  knots  in 
the  timber. 

It  is  impracticable  to  prune  higher  than  the  first  log  length, 
or  as  high  as  a  man  can  reach  with  his  pruning  tools.  Pruning 
should  be  done  at  the  earliest  possible  moment,  as  soon  as  the 
branches  have  died  for  the  distance  up  the  trunk  that  the  trim- 
ming is  to  be  done.  In  this  way  there  will  be  a  smaller  knotty 
center  inside  the  log.  The  pruning  can  ordinarily  be  done  before 
the  trees  become  twenty  years  of  age. 

Only  the  trees  intended  for  the  final  crop  should  be  pruned, 


96 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


as  to  prune  those  of  the  subordinate  crown  classes,  which  will  die 
or  be  removed  in  thinnings,  would  be  a  useless  expense. 

Various  tools  can  be  successfully  used  in  forest  pruning.     As 
only  dead  Hmbs  are  removed,  a  blow  from  the  back  side  of  an  axe 


Fig.  40.  —  The  results  of  pruning  in  producing  clear  lumber.    The  tree  from  which  this 
lumber  came  was  pruned  up  to,  but  not  including,  the  set  of  knots  marked  B. 


or  a  heavy  stick  will  often  do  the  work.  On  the  higher  hmbs  and 
where  the  limbs  are  small,  pruning  hooks  do  the  best  work. 
Where  larger  limbs  are  found,  a  saw  is  needed.  The  cuts  should 
be  smooth,  and  close  to  the  trunk,  so  that  they  may  readily  heal 
over. 


CHAPTER   VI. 
INJURIES   FROM   ANIMALS. 

The  forest  as  a  whole  suffers  relatively  little  from  animals, 
their  influence  on  its  character  being  much  less  important  than 
that  of  insects.  Probably  the  most  destructive  wild  animal  is 
the  porcupine,  which  in  the  northern  woods  girdles  a  great  many 
trees,  especially  spruce.  As  these  animals  are  very  fond  of  old 
pork  barrels  they  are  often  found  in  the  vicinity  of  abandoned 
lumber  camps,  and,  although  in  some  states  there  is  a  reward 
for  killing  them,  it  is  a  question  whether  more  harm  is  done  by 
the  porcupines  or  by  the  class  of  men  who  profit  by  this  reward 
and  are  responsible  for  many  forest  fires. 

While  deer  may  damage  some  farm  crops  in  parts  of  New 
England,  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  our  forest  management  will 
reach  that  degree  of  intensiveness  which  has  been  reached  in 
Germany,  and  which  takes  remedial  measures  against  the  occa- 
sional nipping  of  a  forest  bud  or  stripping  of  the  bark  from  a 
saphng. 

Squirrels,  rabbits,  and  mice  often  nibble  the  bark  from  young 
trees  and  occasionally  girdle  them.  The  writers  have  seen 
plantations  of  locust  and  pitch  pine  in  Connecticut  killed  in  this 
way.  Moles  also  injure  the  roots  of  trees  and  wounds  of  this 
kind  furnish  an  easy  entrance  point  for  fungous  spores.  The 
greatest  damage  from  these  rodents  is,  however,  in  the  forest 
nursery,  where  the  seeds  are  often  eaten  in  large  numbers, 
especially  the  nuts  and  larger  pine  seed.  Small  birds,  such  as 
sparrows  and  goldfinches,  frequently  cause  serious  damage  in 
forest  nurseries  by  eating  the  seed  just  after  germination  and 
thus  destroying  the  young  plants.  Provision  against  such  dam- 
age can  be  made  by  coating  the  seed  before  sowing  with  red  lead, 
a  powder  which  will  remain  on  the  seed  for  a  year  and  which  is 

97 


98  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

distasteful  to  birds.  In  the  large  commercial  nurseries  where 
birds  are  a  serious  menace  the  seed  beds  are  covered  with  a  wire 
netting  of  three-fourths-inch  mesh.  Moles  and  mice  in  a  nursery 
can  be  trapped.  One  of  the  simplest  methods  is  to  sink  pails  half 
full  of  water  and  covered  with  grain  in  the  paths  of  the  nursery, 


Fig.  41 


A  fine  stand  of  hard  maple  and  beech.     Note  absence  of  reproduction  owmg  to 
heavy  grazing  and  compare  with  ne.xt  figure. 


where  the  rodents  will  soon  fall  into  them.  Woodchucks,  squir- 
rels, and  crows  frequently  damage  seedlings  in  plantations,  es- 
pecially where  nuts  have  been  planted.  Much  of  this  injury 
can  be  obviated  by  coating  the  nuts  with  tar  before  planting. 

More  a  matter  of  interest  than  of  economic  importance  is  the 
service  squirrels  sometimes  render  in  helping  in  the  collection  of 
forest  seeds.  The  Shakers  of  Enfield,  Connecticut,  used  to  seed 
down  an  area  of  sand  plain  each  year  to  pine  and  buckwheat. 
After  taking  off  the  crop  of  buckwheat  they  allowed  the  area  to 


INJURIES   FROM    ANIMALS 


99 


grow  up  to  pine,  and  gathered  the  pine  cones  from  the  piles 
which  the  squirrels  had  collected  in  the  woods. 

Throughout  New  England  much  land  formerly  pastured  is 
now  growing  up  to  brush  and  trees.  For  a  long  time  this  land 
was  kept  clean  by  cattle  and  sheep,  but  the  rapid  decline  in  the 
amount  of  live  stock  raised  in  the  East  has  allowed  the  reversion 
of  many  pastures  to  forests.     Where  forest  seedlings  have  come 


Fig.  42.  —  A  pure  stand  of  hard  maple  ready  for  a  selection  cutting.  Note  the  abundance 
of  hard  maple  seedlings  and  saplings  which  have  started  owing  to  protection  from 
grazing. 


up  in  land  still  pastured,  examination  will  show  that  many  of 
them  have  been  eaten  or  broken  off  by  the  animals.  A  common 
practice  is  to  allow  domestic  animals  to  pasture  in  wood  lots, 
where  they  do  a  great  deal  of  damage,  the  character  of  which 
depends  on  the  kind  of  animal. 

Cattle  are  more  incHned  to  rub  against  little  pines  and  other 
conifers  and  thus  break  off  their  tops  than  to  eat  them.     Sheep 


lOO  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

and  goats  will  often  strip  all  foliage  as  high  as  they  can  reach. 
On  steep  slopes  the  trampHng  of  the  animals,  overturning  stones 
and  cutting  up  the  soil,  results  in  preventing  young  seedlings 
from  becoming  established.  Hogs  destroy  forest  seedlings  and 
eat  the  mast  of  nut  trees  and,  in  some  sections  of  the  West,  this 
forms  an  important  part  of  their  diet.  There  may  be  times  when 
the  introduction  of  hogs  into  a  forest  is  rather  beneficial  than 
otherwise.  They  will  do  much  by  their  rooting  to  prepare  the 
soil  for  germination  before  a  heavy  seed  crop  and  it  may  even  be 
advantageous  for  them  to  eat  an  undesirable  kind  of  seed,  as 
beech  nuts,  to  keep  down  the  percentage  of  a  poor  species.  They 
also  destroy  innumerable  grubs,  many  of  which,  like  that  of  the 
June  bug,  are  serious  enemies  of  forest  and  nursery. 

The  presence  of  grass  in  a  forest  is  a  sign  of  poor  management, 
as  grass  can  only  grow  in  openings  exposed  to  sunlight  and  these 
openings  should  not  exist  in  the  forest.  Grass,  more  than  any- 
thing else,  transpires  moisture  and  tends  to  dry  out  the  soil. 

Another  result  of  pasturing  wood  lots  is  a  total  absence  of 
young  seedlings  and  the  consequent  decHne  of  the  forest. 

No  area  which  has  been  planted  to  forest,  or  which  has  been 
covered  with  a  natural  growth  of  seedHngs,  should  be  pastured 
until  the  trees  are  ten  feet  high.  If  the  stand  is  of  proper 
density  there  will  not  then  be  sufficient  browse  to  pay  for  pas- 
turage. In  other  words,  forestry  and  grazing  can  rarely  be 
practiced  on  the  same  land  to  their  mutual  advantage. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

FOREST  INSECTS  AND  FUNGI. 

There  are  numerous  insects  and  fungi  which  attack  the 
leaves,  branches,  trunks,  or  roots  of  forest  trees.  Some  restrict 
their  attack  to  dead  or  dying  trees,  while  a  smaller  number  are 
able  to  prey  upon  living  healthy  trees. 

The  insects  and  fungi  considered  in  this  chapter  have  been 
selected  because  they  are  among  the  most  destructive  to  liv- 
ing forest  trees.  From  the  practical  standpoint,  the  forester  is 
less  interested  in  enemies  which  prey  only  upon  dead  or  badly 
injured  trees. 

For  a  complete  list  of  the  insect  and  fungous  enemies  of  the 
New  England  forests,  reference  must  be  made  to  more  advanced 
entomological  and  pathological  works. 

A .     INSECTS. 

White  Pine  Weevil  {Pissodes  strobi) . 

This  pest  is  found  generally  wherever  the  white  pine  grows. 

Form  of  Damage.  —  The  weevil  invariably  works  in  the  main 
terminal  shoot  and  causes  it  to  wither,  but  seldom  kills  the  tree. 
Depredations  begin  in  July  or  early  August.  The  next  year 
one  of  the  side  branches  straightens  up  and  forms  the  leader, 
but  there  is  always  a  sHght  crook  in  the  tree.  In  badly  infested 
regions  the  same  tree  may  be  attacked  repeatedly,  and  numer- 
ous crooks  will  give  it  a  deformed  and  stunted  appearance.  For 
timber  purposes  the  value  of  the  pine  is  much  diminished.  The 
insect  seems  to  prefer  trees  under  30  feet  in  height,  but  it  occa- 
sionally attacks  taller  ones,  and  those  in  old  fields  and  open 
woods  are  more  severely  attacked  than  those  in  closed  stands. 
The  injurious  effects  are  worse  in  the  southern  range  of  the 
species. 


I02  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

Appearance.  —  In  its  adult  stage  it  is  a  reddish-brown  beetle 
about  one-quarter  inch  long  with  a  pronounced  snout.  The 
pupa  is  creamy  white  and  about  the  same  length  as  the  adult, 
and  the  grub  is  also  white  and  of  varying  length  up  to  one- 
quarter  inch,  according  to  development.  The  infested  top  of 
the  tree  is  badly  decayed  at  the  close  of  the  season  and  is  riddled 
with  tunnels  that  are  filled  with  the  borings.  The  wilting  of 
the  needles  is  the  first  evidence  of  the  weevil's  presence. 


^-^^ 


By  permission  oj  the  U.S.  Forest  Service. 
Fig.  43.  —  Leader  of  a  young  white  pine  killed  by  the  white  pine  weevil.     Several  of  the 
side  branches  have  already  begun  to  take  the  place  of  the  leader. 


Life  History.  —  The  beetles  deposit  their  eggs  under  the  bark 
of  the  main  shoots  in  May  or  June,  and  the  grubs,  which  hatch 
after  a  week  or  two,  begin  to  bore  inward  and  in  a  downward 
direction  to  the  pith.  In  the  grub  stage  they  are  greatly  re- 
duced in  numbers  by  natural  enemies,  mostly  parasitic  insects. 
The  transformation  into  pupae  and  adults  takes  place  during 


FOREST   INSECTS  AND  FUNGI  103 

July  and  August,  after  which  the  imprisoned  beetles  bore  a  way 
out  to  freedom  and  seek  suitable  abodes  in  which  to  pass  the 
winter. 

Treatment.  —  The  best  way  to  light  this  enemy  is  to  cut  off 
the  infested  top  during  June,  July,  or  early  August,  before  the 
beetles  have  escaped.  The  surest  way  of  extermination  is  to 
burn  these  tops,  but  as  they  often  are  the  habitat  of  minute 
insects  which  prey  upon  the  weevil,  a  modification  has  been 
suggested  by  Dr.  Hopkins  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Ento- 
mology. Obtain  a  perfectly  tight  box  or  barrel  with  but  one 
opening  (a  large  metal  can  is  still  better).  In  this,  place  the 
infested  tops,  and  cover  the  opening  with  a  very  fine- wire  mesh 
(one  which  an  ordinary  pinhead  cannot  pass  through).  The 
beetles  cannot  escape,  but  the  parasites  easily  make  their  way 
out  and  attack  other  weevils.  The  box  must  not  be  exposed 
to  the  weather  as  it  will  check  and  allow  the  weevils  to  escape. 
Either  form  of  treatment  must  be  repeated  several  successive 
years  as  it  is  impossible  to  exterminate  them  in  a  single  season. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  injured  trees  from  developing  two  or 
more  main  stems,  all  the  side  branches  of  the  top  whorl,  except 
one,  should  be  cut  off  close  to  the  main  stem.  This  one  side 
branch  will  straighten  and  develop  into  the  trunk  of  the  tree. 

Pine-bark  Aphid  {Chermes  pinicorticis) . 

Form  of  Damage.  —  This  plant  louse  is  sometimes  present  in 
such  large  numbers  on  pine  stems  as  to  weaken  the  vitahty  of 
the  tree  by  sucking  the  sap.  A  sickly  condition  and  occasionally 
death,  in  the  case  of  young  trees,  results.  This  aphid  occurs 
everywhere  throughout  the  range  of  the  white  pine. 

Appearance.  —  A  cottony  appearance  on  the  twigs,  and  some- 
times over  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  betrays  the  presence  of  the 
insect.  It  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  the  exudations  of  the 
pitch. 

The  eggs  occur  in  downy  balls  near  the  base  of  the  needles 
and  vary  in  number  from  live  to  sixty  or  more  in  each  cluster. 
They  are  oval,  and  of  a  reddish-yellow  color.     As  insects,  some 


I04 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


are  winged  and  some  wingless.  The  young  of  the  latter  are  oval 
in  shape,  somewhat  flattened,  and  of  a  yellowish-brown  tint.  As 
these  develop  they  become  darker  colored,  and  finally  almost 
black.    The  wool-hke  covering  serves  to  hide  the  insect  and 


By  permission  of  the  Conneclicut  State  Forester. 
Fig.  44.  —  A  white  pine  tree  27  years  old  seriously  attacked  by  the' white 
pine  aphid. 

gives  it  the  appearance  of  a  ball  of  down.  The  winged  species 
are  of  a  Kght-reddish  tinge;  their  white  wings  expanding  rapidly 
become  transparent,  but  the  bodies  become  almost  black. 

Life  History.  —  The  eggs  laid  by  the  wingless  females  begin 
to  hatch  early  in  May,  and  the  young,  emerging  in  large  numbers 
from  the  bulbs  of  wooly  matter,  spread  over  the  bark  at  the  base 


FOREST   INSECTS   AND    FUNGI  105 

of  the  needles.  Individually  they  are  almost  too  small  to  be 
seen  with  the  naked  eye,  but  their  number  at  this  stage  is  legion. 
They  soon  attach  themselves  to  the  tender  bark  of  young  twigs, 
increase  rapidly  in  size  and  darken  down  to  brown  or  black, 
and  all  the  while  exude  a  substance  which  nearly  conceals  them. 
Maturity  is  reached  about  the  last  of  May  when  the  females 
deposit  eggs  for  another  brood.  During  the  summer  there  may 
be  several  broods  and  at  last  females  with  wings  appear. 

Treatment.  —  The  aphid  has  several  natural  enemies,  the 
most  effective  being  certain  varieties  of  ladybugs.  Where  a  hy- 
drant is  near  the  insects  can  be  washed  off  by  a  forcible  stream 
of  cold  water.  A  spray  of  kerosene  emulsion,  or  whale-oil  soap, 
is  efhcient.  One  pound  of  the  soap  to  four  gallons  of  water 
makes  a  good  mixture.  However,  in  forestry  it  is  usually  im- 
practicable as  well  as  unnecessary  to  use  preventive  measures. 

The  SpRUCE-DESTROYrNG  Beetle^  {Dendroctouus 
piceaperda). 

Form  of  Damage.  —  This  insect,  which  has  been  prevalent  in 
New  England  and  New  York  since  1818,  has  destroyed  much 
spruce  timber  by  its  borings  in  the  cambium,  the  living  tissue 
just  beneath  the  bark.  Here  it  makes  its  primary  galleries, 
and  lays  its  eggs.  As  soon  as  the  eggs  hatch  the  young  broods 
make  transverse  galleries  which  effectually  girdle  the  tree,  and 
in  time  the  withering  leaves  proclaim  the  death  of  the  tree. 
The  falling  leaves  are  an  outward  sign  of  the  damage;  by  remov- 
ing the  bark  the  galleries  made  by  the  insects  may  be  plainly 
seen. 

Appearance.  —  The  adult  is  a  reddish-brown  or  black  beetle, 
varying  in  length  from  three-sixteenths  to  one-quarter  of  an  inch. 
The  egg,  small  and  nearly  white,  is  not  distinguishable  from  that 
of  other  bark  beetles.  The  larva,  at  first  a  minute  white  grub, 
becomes  about  one-quarter  inch  long.     The  pupa  is  nearly  white 

*  See  "  Some  of  the  Principal  Insect  Enemies  of  Coniferous  Forests  in  the 
United  States,"  by  A.  D.  Hopkins,  from  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 
1902. 


Io6  FORESTRY  IN   NEW  ENGLAND 

and  of  about  the  same  size  and  form  as  the  adult;  it  is  found  in 
cavities  in  the  bark. 

Life  History.  - —  Simultaneously  a  large  number  of  beetles  will 
attack  the  lower  part  of  a  large-sized  spruce.  Trees  over 
ten  inches  in  diameter  may  be  attacked  They  bore  through 
the  bark  and  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  galleries  as  already  de- 
scribed. The  eggs  soon  hatch  and  each  larva  bores  its  individ- 
ual gallery  where  it  matures.  The  period  of  development  from 
egg  to  mature  larva  varies  according  to  the  season,  from  two  to 
nine  months,  but  the  adult  seldom  develops  sufiticiently  to  emerge 
until  another  spring.  The  result  is,  when  activity  ceases  in 
October,  that  a  tree  may  contain  the  insect  in  all  its  stages  of 
growth. 

Treatment.  —  Nothing  can  be  done  to  save  a  tree  once  in- 
fested with  this  borer,  but  much  can  be  done  to  prevent  the 
spread  to  other  trees.  Theoretically  the  best  method  is  to  make 
trap  trees  by  hack  girdling  them  in  May  or  June.  The  beetles 
are  thus  led  to  concentrate  on  these  weakened  trees,  and  these 
are  to  be  destroyed  in  the  fall,  winter,  or  early  spring,  either  by 
the  removal  of  the  timber  from  the  forest  or  by  felling  and  re- 
moving the  bark  before  the  insects  emerge.  Intelhgent  lum- 
bering of  the  areas  of  infected  trees,  and  of  all  mature  trees,  is 
the  most  practicable  way  of  keeping  this  insect  in  check. 

The  Spruce  Bud  worm  (Tortrix  fumijerana) . 

The  spruce  budworm  is  an  insect  which,  within  recent  years 
at  least,  has  not  attracted  widespread  attention  among  forest- 
ers and  landowners  in  New  England.  Extensive  killing  of  the 
spruce  about  thirty  years  ago  along  the  Maine  coast  is  attributed 
largely  by  Packard  to  this  insect.  However,  in  Canada,  in  the 
neighboring  province  of  Quebec,  it  is  now  a  serious  pest,  and 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  in  New  England  also  it  may 
become  dangerous. 

Form  of  Damage.  —  The  insect  feeds  in  its  caterpillar  stage  on 
the  buds  of  the  spruce,  and  after  these  are  destroyed  it  eats  off 


FOREST   INSECTS   AND    FUNGI  107 

the  needles,  attacking  them  at  the  base.  Besides  the  spruce, 
other  conifers  may  be  attacked. 

Trees  may  be  killed  outright  by  the  spruce  bud  worm,  if 
defoliated  repeatedly,  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  result  is 
the  checking  of  the  growth  of  the  tree  and  the  weakening  of  its 
vitality.  Indirectly  this  is  of  importance,  since  the  weakening 
of  the  tree's  vitality  results  in  its  falling  an  easy  prey  to  the  spruce- 
destroying  bark  beetle,  which  is  a  much  more  dangerous  enemy. 
Branches  attacked  by  the  spruce  budworm  have  a  reddish- 
brown  appearance,  due  to  the  bare  twigs  and  to  the  dead  leaves, 
which  the  caterpillars  have  fastened  together  to  serve  as  a  place 
in  which  to  live. 

Dr.  C.  Gordon  Hewitt,  F.E.S.,  Dominion  Entomologist  of 
Ottawa,  Canada,  has  studied  the  spruce  budworm  and  the  fol- 
lowing account  of  its  life  history  is  taken  from  one  of  his  addresses 
published  in  the  Report  of  the  Canadian  Forestry  Convention 
for  191 1 : 

"The  winter  is  passed  in  the  caterpillar  stage,  as  a  very  small 
caterpillar,  we  believe,  in  a  little  shelter  constructed  near  a  bud. 
In  the  spring,  when  the  buds  begin  to  swell,  the  caterpillar  begins 
to  feed  and  becomes  full-grown  towards  the  end  of  May  and 
beginning  of  June.  They  are  then  four-fifths  of  an  inch  long,  of 
a  reddish-brown  color,  and  have  small  light-yellow  warts  on 
each  segment  of  the  body;  the  sides  of  the  caterpillar  are  lighter 
in  color.  They  transform  into  brown  chrysalids  inside  the  loosely 
made  shelters.  In  six  to  ten  days  the  small  brown  moth  emerges 
from  the  chrysalis,  dragging  the  empty  case  partially  out  of 
the  larval  shelter.  The  moths  are  found  from  the  middle  of 
June  to  the  end  of  July.  Shortly  after  emergence,  they  deposit 
their  peculiar  pale-green  scale-like  eggs  in  small  oval  patches  on 
the  undersides  of  the  needles,  and  they  are  not  conspicuous. 
The  eggs  hatch  in  about  a  week  or  ten  days,  and  the  young 
larvae  feed  for  a  short  time  on  the  terminal  shoots  of  the  branches 
before  hibernating.  During  July  when  the  moths  are  flying, 
they  occur  in  enormous  numbers  about  the  electric  and  other 
Kghts.  .  .  .  They  are  carried  considerable  distances  by  the 
wind,  and  this  method  of  dispersal  accounts  for  the  rapid  spread 
of  the  insect." 


Io8  FORESTRY  IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

Treatment. — No  practicable  method  of  directly  combating 
the  spruce  budworm  is  as  yet  known.  Its  greatest  damage 
is  done  in  connection  with  the  spruce-destroying  beetle.  This 
beetle  can  be  controlled  as  already  described.  Where  the 
spruce  budworm  is  found  in  abundance,  especial  watch  should 
be  kept  to  see  whether  the  spruce-destroying  beetle  has  attacked 
the  weakened  trees. 

The  Gipsy  Moth  {Porthetria  dispar). 

Form  of  Damage.  —  Since  its  importation  into  Massachusetts, 
the  damage  done  by  this  insect  has  been  most  serious  —  dam- 
age, by  the  way,  not  confined  either  to  forest  or  fruit  trees,  for 
it  also  attacks  other  forms  of  vegetation.  The  damage  done 
is  by  defoliation  which  weakens  the  tree,  and  if  repeated  for 
two  or  three  successive  seasons  results  in  its  death. 

The  gipsy  moth  prefers  such  trees  as  the  oak  and  maple,  but 
conifers  are  not  immune.^  It  does  Kttle  damage  to  the  compound 
leaf  species,  as  the  ash,  hickory,  and  butternut.  Experts,  there- 
fore, advise  the  encouragement  in  the  infected  regions,  so  far  as 
possible,  of  species  with  compound  leaves. 

Appearance.  —  The  presence  of  this  insect  is  always  apparent 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  season  from  the  defoliation  of  the  trees, 
but  identification  is  easiest  by  the  discovery  of  the  large  egg 
masses  which  are  oval  in  shape,  about  an  inch  wide  and  two 
inches  long,  of  a  buff  color,  and  presenting  much  the  appearance 
of  a  piece  of  sponge.  These  may  be  found  on  the  bark  of  trees 
or  under  leaves  on  the  ground.  The  young  caterpillar  is  about 
one-tenth  inch  long  on  emerging  from  the  egg;  when  full  grown  it 
is  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  inches  in  length.  It  has  a  double 
row  of  tubercles  down  the  back,  eight  blue  and  twelve  red. 
The  pupa  is  dark  brown  and  from  three-fourths  to  one  and  a 
half  inches  long.  The  male  and  the  female  moth  differ  widely 
in  appearance.  The  former  is  small  and  of  a  brown  color,  with 
a  wing  spread  of  one  and  a  half  inches.    The  female,  of  a  white 

'  The  red  pine  is  thought  to  be  immune. 


FOREST   INSECTS    AND   FUNGI  lOQ 

or  buff  color,  and  with  a  wing  spread  of  about  two  inches,  is 
too  heavy  to  fly. 

Life  History.  —  In  this  country  as  well  as  in  Europe  this 
insect  has  but  one  generation  a  year.  The  minute  eggs  are  laid 
in  clusters  of  from  four  hundred  to  five  hundred  eggs  each. 
Yellowish  hairs  give  to  these  clusters  a  sponge-like  appearance, 
and  although  they  are  usually  on  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  or  the 
side  of  a  log,  they  are  often  concealed  in  crevices  and  under 
rocks.  Eggs  are  laid  in  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  and 
usually  do  not  hatch  into  caterpillars  until  the  following  spring, 
from  the  end  of  April  until  the  middle  of  June.  The  cater- 
pillars reach  full  growth  in  about  ten  days,  spin  filmy  cocoons 
usually  on  the  trunks  of  trees,  and  finally  emerge  as  moths  in 
late  July  or  August.  Most  of  the  damage  is  done  in  the  cater- 
pillar stage,  and  the  dissemination  of  the  insect  is  also  due 
largely  to  the  activity  of  the  caterpillar.  Eggs  and  caterpillars 
are  distributed  by  artificial  means,  as  on  cars,  automobiles,  etc. 

Treatment.  —  The  conspicuous  color  of  the  egg  mass  and  the 
long  duration  of  the  insect  in  this  stage  make  this  the  most 
vulnerable  stage  to  combat.  The  masses  may  be  collected  and 
burned,  or,  as  is  most  generally  done  now,  they  may  be  treated 
with  a  coating  of  creosote.  In  the  woods,  extreme  vigilance  is 
necessary  to  find  these  clusters.  All  brush,  especially  near 
stone  walls,  should  first  be  removed. 

Several  methods  of  destroying  the  caterpillars  are  employed. 
During  the  month  just  after  hatching  —  from  the  middle  of  May 
to  the  middle  of  June  —  the  trees  may  be  sprayed  effectively 
with  arsenate  of  lead.  This  spray  will  not  injure  the  tenderest 
foliage  when  diluted  with  water  in  the  ratio  ten  pounds  to  one 
hundred  gallons  of  water.  One  method  of  preventing  the  cater- 
pillars from  climbing  trees  is  either  to  bind  the  trunks  with  tar 
paper,  or  to  smear  the  bark  with  fish  oil  or  a  sticky  German 
product  known  as  "  raupenleim  "  (caterpillar  glue).  This  glue 
remains  viscid  for  months.  Another  kind  of  band,  used  as  a 
trap,  consists  of  a  strip  of  common  burlap  a  foot  wide  which 
is  tied  around  the  trunk  with  a  single  string  at  its  middle  and 


no  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

about  four  feet  from  the  ground.  The  upper  part  of  the  burlap 
is  turned  down  over  the  twine,  thus  making  a  double  fold  around 
the  tree.  The  caterpillars  eat  the  foHage  in  the  night,  crawl 
down  the  tree  and  conceal  themselves  on  the  burlap  through  the 
day.  Squads  of  men  going  through  the  forest  crush  them  in 
these  hiding  places.  Rubbish  heaps  and  all  breeding  places 
should  be  destroyed.  An  effective  method  of  protecting  coni- 
fers is  to  remove  all  hardwoods,  especially  those  with  simple 
leaves.  A  number  of  parasitic  insects  have  been  introduced 
from  Europe  and  set  free  in  Massachusetts  ^  and  it  is  confidently 
hoped  that  they  will  in  time  obtain  the  mastery. 

The  gipsy  moth  has  spread  constantly,  year  by  year,  despite 
all  the  efforts  that  have  been  made  to  control  it.  At  one  time  it 
was  nearly  under  control  when,  unfortunately,  Massachusetts 
politics  interfered,  appropriations  for  suppressing  the  insect 
were  cut  down  and  the  evil  spread  unhindered.  It  now  appears 
throughout  the  eastern  half  of  Massachusetts  nearly  to  the 
Berkshires,  through  southern  Maine  and  southeastern  New 
Hampshire,  throughout  Rhode  Island,  and  has  been  discovered 
in  Connecticut,  but  has  been  controlled  there  by  the  State 
Entomologist.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
is  now  cooperating  with  the  various  states  mentioned  in  an 
attempt  to  suppress  this  evil,  and  is  laying  special  emphasis 
on  the  introduction  of  foreign  parasites  and  enemies. 

Brown-tail  Moth  {Euproctis  chrysorrJioea). 

Form  of  Damage.  —  Like  the  gipsy  moth  this  insect  defoliates 
both  forest  and  fruit  trees,  but  apparently  does  not  attack 
conifers.  Of  forest  trees,  it  prefers  oak,  maple,  and  elm.  Be- 
sides the  damage  to  trees,  the  hairs  from  the  caterpillars  are 
exceedingly  irritating  and  poisonous  to  some  people,  and  often 
cause  severe  illness. 

Appearance.  —  The  most  conspicuous  indication  of  this  in- 
sect's presence,  and  one  which  distinguishes  it  at  once  from 

^  See  Chapter  XVII,  Massachusetts. 


FOREST  INSECTS   AND   FUNGI  III 

the  Gipsy  moth,  is  the  webs  on  the  terminal  twigs  in  which  the 
partly  grown  caterpillars  spend  the  winter.  The  male  moth 
is  pure  white  with  a  wing  spread  of  about  one  and  a  fourth 
inches,  and  has  a  conspicuous  reddish-brown  tuft  at  the  tip  of 
the  abdomen  from  which  it  gets  its  name.  The  female  is  some- 
what larger,  but  is  the  same  color  as  the  male  except  that  the 
tuft  is  larger  and  of  lighter  color.  The  full-grown  caterpillars 
range  from  one  to  one  and  a  fourth  inches  in  length. 

Life  History.  —  The  winter  is  passed  in  the  partly  grown 
caterpillar  stage  as  indicated  above.  These  begin  work  early 
in  the  spring,  feeding  downward  from  the  tips  of  the  branches 
and  leaving  the  naked  twigs  and  their  gray  tents  as  evidence  of 
their  sojourn.  When  numerous,  they  will  devour  green  fruit  as 
well  as  leaves  and  buds  and  blossoms.  A  number  of  caterpillars 
frequently  pupate  in  a  common  cocoon  of  dry  leaves  at  the 
tips  of  the  branches  and  sometimes  in  masses  under  fences, 
clapboards,  or  on  the  trunks  of  trees.  They  pupate  in  June 
usually.  Their  webs  may  be  distinguished  frorh  those  of  the 
tent  caterpillar  which  are  always  at  the  forks  of  the  branches. 
The  eggs  are  laid  during  July  in  masses  composed  of  two  hun- 
dred to  three  hundred,  usually  on  the  underside  of  leaves. 
These  eggs,  which  are  covered  with  fine  brown  hairs,  hatch  in 
a  short  time,  and  the  young  marauders  live  on  the  foHage  until  it 
is  time  for  them  to  make  their  winter  tents. 

Treatment.  —  As  their  hibernating  nests  are  conspicuous  par- 
ticularly in  early  spring,  they  can  then  be  cut  off  and  burned. 
The  species  is  killed  also  by  spraying  with  arsenical  mixtures. 
The  range  of  this  insect  is  similar  to  that  of  the  gipsy  moth, 
but  scattered  specimens  have  been  found  in  Vermont  and  other 
sections  outside  the  infected  Gipsy  moth  belt. 

The  Larch  Sawfly  {Nematus  erichsonii). 

This  insect  is  distributed  through  the  New  England  range 
of  the  tamarack,  on  the  leaves  of  which  it  feeds.  Complete 
defoHation  often  results  from  the  attack  of  the  sawfly,  and  the 
tamarack   over   a   large  region  may   be  killed.     In   the  early 


112  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

8o's,  great  destruction  of  the  native  larch  was  caused  in  New- 
England.     The  insect  will  also  attack  the  European  larch. 

The  following  account  of  the  appearance  and  life  history  of 
the  insect  is  quoted  from  an  article  by  Dr.  C.  Gordon  Hewitt, 
F.E.S.,  Dominion  Entomologist  of  Ottawa,  Canada,  and  pub- 
lished in  the  Report  of  the  Canadian  Forestry  Convention  for 
1911: 

"The  habits  and  Hfe  history  of  the  insect  are  such  as  to 
render  it  injurious  in  both  the  caterpillar  or  worm  stage,  and  the 
fly  stage.  The  winter  is  passed  by  the  larva  in  a  cocoon  under  the 
turf  round  the  base  of  the  tree.  In  May  the  larvae  transform 
into  the  perfect  insect  and  the  flies  begin  to  emerge  during  that 
month.  An  interesting  feature  of  the  productive  powers  of  the 
larch  sawfiy  is  that  it  can  reproduce  parthenogenetically,  this 
means  that  the  females  can  deposit  eggs  wliich,  although  they 
have  not  been  fertilized  by  the  males,  are  not  infertile  but  produce 
larvae  of  the  sawfly.  This  interesting  phenomenon,  which  also 
occurs  in  certain  other  insects,  is  of  importance,  as  the  pro- 
ductive power  of  the  species  is  increased  when  the  necessity  of 
the  female  meeting  a  male  is  dispensed  with.  Shortly  after 
emerging  the  females  begin  to  deposit  their  eggs.  The  eggs  are 
always  deposited  in  the  terminal  green  shoots  of  the  larch  and 
never  on  any  other  part  of  the  tree.  In  laying  the  eggs  the 
female  sawfiy  makes  an  incision  in  the  tender  stem  of  the  shoot 
by  means  of  a  pair  of  saw-like  instruments  at  the  end  of  the 
body,  and  into  this  incision  the  egg  is  pushed.  The  eggs  are 
usually  deposited  in  a  double  row  in  the  shoot  and  as  many  as 
forty  or  iifty  eggs  may  be  found  on  a  single  green  shoot.  As 
they  are  usually  deposited  along  one  side  of  the  shoot  the  in- 
juries inflicted  by  the  saw-Hke  appendages  of  the  female  cause 
the  shoot  as  it  grows  to  curl.  In  many  cases  the  injuries  are  so 
severe  as  to  kill  the  shoot  and  the  presence  of  the  dead  and 
reddish-brown  shoots  often  serves  as  an  indication  of  the  pres- 
ence of  the  insect.  In  about  a  week  to  ten  days  after  deposition 
the  eggs  hatch  and  the  young  pale-green  caterpillars  emerge 
and  immediately  begin  to  feed  upon  the  green  verticles  of  the 
leaves.  As  they  become  older  they  feed  in  masses,  sometimes 
as  many  as  fifty  or  sixty  caterpillars  in  a  single  cluster,  and, 
feeding  in  this  manner,  they  completely  strip  the  branches  of 
all  green  leaves  which  gives  the  tree  a  winter  aspect  in  the  middle 


FOREST  INSECTS  AND   FUNGI  I13 

of  summer.  The  caterpillars  are  full  grown  in  three  to  four 
weeks  and,  during  their  lives,  they  cast  their  skins  five  times. 
.  .  .  The  full-grown  caterpillar  measures  about  two-thirds  of 
an  inch  in  length.  Its  color  is  bluish  or  glaucous  green,  the 
lower  surface  being  a  lighter  green.  The  head  and  three  pairs 
of  thoracic  legs  are  jet  black.  It  also  possesses  seven  pairs  of 
abdominal  legs.  When  the  caterpillars  are  full-grown  they  either 
crawl  down  or  drop  from  the  tree  and  penetrate  the  turf  round 
the  base  of  the  tree  to  the  depth  of  a  few  inches.  There  they 
spin  a  brown  oval  cocoon  about  two-fifths  of  an  inch  in  length, 
and  in  this  the  winter  is  passed,  the  caterpillar  transforming 
into  the  perfect  insect  in  the  following  year  as  previously  de- 
scribed. The  sawflies  are  black  with  the  middle  portion  of  the 
hind  body  or  abdomen  a  bright  resin  red,  and  they  measure 
about  half  an  inch  in  length." 

Treatment.  —  The  prevention  of  the  ravages  of  this  insect 
must  be  left  to  natural  factors,  especially  to  various  parasites 
which  prey  upon  the  sawfly.  So  completely  does  an  outbreak 
of  the  sawfly  destroy  the  larch,  that  the  supply  of  food  for  the 
insect  becomes  scarce  and  it  falls  a  victim  of  its  own  rapacity. 

In  Europe  birds  have  been  found  to  be  important  enemies  of 
the  sawfly,  and  special  steps  are  taken  to  increase  their  numbers, 
but  this  will  hardly  be  practicable  as  yet  in  this  country,  as  the 
native  larch  is  most  abundant  in  sections  where  only  extensive 
methods  of  management  can  be  applied. 

Elm-leaf  Beetle  {Galerucella  lutcola). 

Form  of  Damage.  —  The  elm  leaves  are  skeletonized,  and  this 
gives  the  crown  of  the  tree  a  brown,  scorched  appearance  which 
detracts  greatly  from  its  beauty.  If  a  tree  is  defoliated  two  or 
three  seasons  in  succession,  it  is  sure  to  die.  The  elms  of 
southern  New  England,  especially  those  in  cities  and  towns, 
have  suffered  tremendously  from  this  pest. 

Appearance.  —  The  damage  is  always  done  before  its  extent 
is  apparent.  By  the  middle  of  summer  the  infested  trees  are 
entirely  defoHated.  The  beetle  is  about  one-fourth  inch  long 
with  head  and  wings  marked  with  yellow.  The  yellow  eggs  are 
usually  deposited  in  irregular  rows  on  the  under  surface  of  the 


1 14  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

leaf.  The  full-grown  caterpillar  is  about  one-half  inch  long  with 
a  broad,  yellowish  stripe  down  the  center  and  a  narrower  strip 
of  the  same  color  on  each  side.  The  pupa  is  a  bright  orange 
yellow  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  long. 

Life  History.  —  The  transformations  of  this  insect  follow  each 
other  so  rapidly  that  unless  one  knows  just  what  to  look  for  he 
is  apt  in  combating  the  pest  to  do  the  wrong  thing  at  the  wrong 
time.  The  beetles  pass  the  winter  in  sheds,  attics,  and  in  other 
sheltered  places  and  emerge  in  the  first  warm  spring  weather. 
Late  in  April  or  with  the  appearance  of  elm  leaves  the  beetles 
fly  into  the  trees  and  begin  defoliating.  Before  the  latter  part 
of  June  when  the  eggs  are  all  laid,  much  damage  may  be  done. 
Early  in  June  the  young  grubs  hatch  out  and  begin  to  eat  the 
leaves.  They  complete  this  stage  in  about  three  weeks  and  then 
pupate,  developing  into  the  beetle  in  a  few  days.  As  there  are 
usually  two  broods  in  a  season  the  foliage  may  be  destroyed,  re- 
newed, and  again  destroyed,  which  is  very  weakening  to  the  tree. 

Treatment.  —  Many  of  these  insects  are  killed  by  a  fungus 
and  by  parasites.  The  success  of  any  treatment  depends  on 
accurate  observations.  Much  can  be  accomplished  by  spray- 
ing the  underside  of  the  leaves  in  early  spring  with  arsenical 
poisons  when  the  grubs  begin  to  feed.  There  should  be  no  de- 
lay in  this  work.  When  the  caterpillars  crawl  down  the  trunk, 
large  numbers  of  them  may  be  killed  by  spraying  with  kerosene 
emulsion,  soap  solution,  or  by  pouring  boiling  water  on  them. 
Banding  the  trees  is  of  no  use  in  combating  the  insect,  since  it 
works  down  the  tree  instead  of  up.  The  successful  methods  of 
fighting  the  elm-leaf  beetle  cannot  be  used  in  forestry  work  on 
account  of  the  expense. 

Forest  Tent  Caterpillar,^  or  Maple  Worm  (Malacosoma 
dis stria). 

Form  of  Damage.  —  A  few  years  ago  this  insect  caused  a  great 
deal  of  damage  throughout  the  northeast  by  defoliating  sugar- 

1  See  New  York  State  Museum  Memoir  8,  "  Insects  Affecting  Park  and  Wood- 
land Trees." 


FOREST  INSECTS  AND    FUNGI  115 

maple  trees.  Many  sugar  orchards  were  completely  stripped 
of  leaves  by  the  caterpillar,  resulting  in  the  death  of  numerous 
trees,  and  an  injury  to  sugar  productivity  which  has  not  yet 
been  fully  compensated,  after  a  period  of  ten  years.  The  defo- 
liation occurs  for  the  most  part  in  the  early  summer.  While 
the  insect  prefers  the  foliage  of  the  maple,  it  does  not  confine 
its  ravages  to  this  tree,  but  eats  the  foHage  of  oak,  Hnden, 
locust,  peach,  plum,  cherry,  apple,  elm,  poplar,  birch,  and  some 
of  the  shrubs. 

Appearance.  —  The  damage  is  done  by  the  caterpillar  which 
is  blue-headed,  with  a  line  of  silvery  diamond-shaped  spots 
down  the  middle  of  the  back.  When  not  feeding,  they  assemble 
in  clusters  on  the  sides  of  the  larger  limbs  and  trunks.  This 
insect  may  be  distinguished  from  the  common  tent  caterpillar, 
Malacosoma  americana,  by  the  fact  that  it  does  not  spin  a  con- 
spicuous web  tent  as  does  the  latter.  The  egg  belts  containing 
about  150  eggs  encircle  the  slender  twigs  and  have  a  brownish 
protective  covering.  The  white  or  yellowish-white  cocoons  are 
spun  in  the  leaves  on  the  tree  or  on  the  ground,  in  crevices  of 
the  bark,  under  stones,  in  fence  corners,  etc.  In  the  cocoons  are 
dark-brown  pupae.  The  moths  are  light  buff  colored  and  active. 
The  males  are  smaller  than  the  females  and  of  rich  coloring. 

Life  History.  —  This  insect  passes  the  winter  in  the  egg  stage 
as  a  well-developed  larva.  In  the  warm  weather  of  spring  the 
young  caterpillars  emerge  and  await  the  unfolding  of  the  leaves. 
As  the  young  increase  in  size  they  molt,  leaving  their  cast-off 
skins  on  the  bark.  The  larvae  are  found  in  clusters  on  the 
limbs  when  not  feeding.  When  the  limb  is  jarred  they  are 
easily  knocked  off.  Early  in  June  when  the  caterpillars  are 
nearly  full  grown  they  may  be  seen  in  great  numbers  crawling 
over  walks,  piazzas,  and  the  sides  of  buildings.  The  insect 
remains  in  the  pupa  stage  about  two  weeks,  and  emerges  as 
a  moth  about  the  last  of  June  or  in  July,  when  the  eggs  are 
deposited. 

Natural  Enemies.  —  This  insect  is  sometimes  attacked  by  a 
fungous  disease.     It  is  also  a  favorite  item  of  diet  for  robins, 


Il6  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

orioles,  chipping  sparrows,  catbirds,  cuckoos,  cedar  birds,  and 
nuthatches. 

Treatment.  —  Something  can  be  done  by  collecting  and  burn- 
ing the  egg  masses  in  winter,  but  the  method  is  of  no  great 
value.  Many  of  the  caterpillars  can  be  brushed  off  the  trees 
and  crushed,  or  burned  on  the  trees  with  a  torch.  Bands  of 
tar  paper  or  fly  paper  tied  around  the  trees  prevent  the  cater- 
pillars from  ascending.  The  masses  of  caterpillars  on  the 
trunks  can  also  be  killed  by  spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion, 
whale-oil-soap  solution  (one  pound  to  four  gallons),  or  with  the 
ordinary  poisonous  insecticides,  as  the  arsenical  sprays.  In  June 
great  numbers  of  cocoons  can  be  collected  with  little  trouble. 
In  some  New  York  towns  rewards  have  been  paid  the  school 
children  for  collecting  these  cocoons.  These  methods  are  too 
expensive  for  use  in  forestry,  except  in  the  care  of  valuable 
sugar  orchards. 

The  June  Bug  {Lachno sterna) } 

The  June  bug  as  a  forest  pest  has  gained  prominence  in  New 
England  only  in  the  last  few  years  since  forest  planting  has  been 
started  on  a  large  scale.  For  years  it  has  been  recognized  as 
injurious  to  certain  crops,  particularly  grass,  its  ravages  being 
much  worse  in  some  localities  than  in  others.  During  the  last 
three  years  the  attention  of  foresters  has  been  directed  to  this 
bug  because  of  the  havoc  it  has  wrought  in  certain  nurseries. 

Appearance.  —  The  June  bug  in  the  pupa  stage,  as  a  whitish 
grub,  eats  the  roots  and  bark  on  the  roots  of  seedlings,  trans- 
plants, and  trees  in  plantations.  Only  the  smallest  and  ten- 
derest  roots  can  be  consumed,  but  larger  roots,  up  to  at  least 
one-eighth  inch  in  diameter,  may  be  partially  or  completely 
stripped  of  their  bark.  The  greatest  damage  is  to  seedlings 
where  the  entire  root  system  may  be  consumed  by  this  grub. 
Three-  and  four-year-old  transplants  in  nurseries  may  lose  all 
but  a  single  main  root  and  become  so  weakened  that  finally 

^  This  is  the  generic  name.  There  are  ten  or  more  species  of  the  genus  found 
in  New  England. 


FOREST   INSECTS  AND  FUNGI  II 7 

they  die.  In  plantations  the  loss  is  less  noticeable  than  in 
nurseries.  No  thorough  study  of  the  loss  has  been  made  so 
far  as  is  known.  Often  the  slow  and  stunted  growth  of  certain 
trees  may  be  traced  to  root  injuries  due  to  this  insect. 

Only  plantations  in  open  land  not  recently  under  forest  are 
hable  to  the  injury,  as  the  June  bug  is  not  found  commonly 
in  forested  soil. 

When  once  famiUar  with  its  devastations,  its  presence  can  be 
readily  detected.  In  seed-beds  of  very  young  plants  the  grub 
often  eats  o&  the  roots  and  draws  the  stem  of  the  plant  into 
the  ground  leaving  the  top  to  rest  on  the  surface.  When  these 
tops  are  taken  out  the  roots  are  found  to  have  been  eaten 
entirely  away.  Older  seedhngs  and  transplants  show  the  injury 
by  wilting  and  turning  yellow,  when  their  tops  are  pulled  up 
easily.  An  uninjured  plant  being  held  by  its  small  roots  offers 
resistance  when  pulled. 

Life  History.  —  The  June  bug  appears  in  the  beetle  form  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  the  spring.  In  June  or  July  it  lays  eggs 
in  the  ground,  one  to  six  inches  below  the  surface.  Open  land 
and  fields  of  old  sod  are  its  habitat.  In  the  daytime  the  beetle 
prefers  to  remain  in  trees  and  at  night  to  fly  out  into  the  adjoin- 
ing fields  where  it  lays  its  eggs.  Fields  bordered  with  shade 
trees  which  offer  a  shelter  in  the  daytime  are  pretty  sure  to 
furnish  numerous  June-bug  grubs.  The  eggs  soon  hatch  into 
slender,  whitish  grubs,  which  at  first  are  less  than  one-fourth 
of  an  inch  in  length;  sometimes  they  grow  to  be  over  one  and  a 
half  inches  long.  It  is  in  this  grub  or  pupa  stage  that  the  injury 
is  done.  The  grubs  are  sluggish,  work  slowly,  and  never  appear 
above  ground.  They  do  not  remain  at  one  depth,  but  in  sum- 
mer work  from  near  the  surface  to  ten  or  twelve  inches  below; 
in  late  fall  and  winter  they  bore  much  deeper  and  remain  there 
until  frost  leaves  the  ground.  They  work  at  night  and  will  be 
found  nearer  to  the  surface  then  than  during  the  daytime. 

In  August  or  September  the  grubs  begin  to  change  into 
beetles,  and  as  such  remain  in  the  ground  until  spring,  when 
they  emerge  and  are  a  famiHar  sight.     Many  remain  in  the  grub 


Il8  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

stage  for  more  than  one  season,  and  do  not  change  into  beetles 
until  the  second  August  or  September.  This  gives  them  a 
longer  time  to  feed,  and  as  they  grow  in  size  they  become  more 
injurious.  Often  they  work  until  the  ground  is  frozen  and 
start  in  early  again  when  it  thaws  in  the  spring. 

Treatment.  —  A  simple  and  cheap  method  of  combating  the 
June  bug  has  not  yet  been  worked  out.  At  present  in  forest 
nurseries,  when  the  grubs  are  found  to  be  abundant,  they  are 
dug  out  by  hand,  the  spot  where  they  are  working  being  easily 
determined  by  the  appearance  of  the  injured  plants.  This 
method  can  be  used  in  transplant  beds,  but  in  thick  beds  of 
seedlings  it  is  hardly  practicable.  Where  land  known  to  be 
infested  with  the  grub  is  to  be  used  for  a  nursery  or  a  planta- 
tion, it  is  a  good  thing  to  turn  in  swine.  They  will  uproot  the 
ground  thoroughly  and  eat  the  grubs.  After  that  the  field  can 
be  used  safely. 

Inasmuch  as  old  sod  and  grass  land  is  preferred  by  the  beetles 
as  a  meeting  place,  such  land  should  not  be  put  into  nursery 
use  until  after  a  year  or  two  of  preliminary  cultivation. 

In  the  case  of  a  similar  species,  trapping  and  killing  the  beetles 
has  been  tried  in  Europe  sometimes  very  successfully.  In  one 
section  where  the  insects  abounded,  the  cost  of  planting  was  in 
eight  years  reduced  from  the  abnormal  figure  of  $53  per  acre  to 
between  $3  and  $4  per  acre.  In  this  case  trap  trees  of  a  species 
which  the  beetles  preferred  were  left  in  the  open,  and  then 
the  beetles,  when  in  the  trees,  were  shaken  down  upon  sheets 
and  destroyed. 

B.    FUNGI. 

Chestnut  Bark  Disease  {Diaporthe  parasitica). 
Without  doubt  this  is  one  of  the  most  threatening  fungous 
diseases  which  ever  attacked  a  forest  tree.  It  is  one  of  the  few 
diseases  which  cause  the  certain  death  of  healthy,  vigorous  trees. 
So  virulent  is  it  that  the  chestnut,  on  which  it  preys,  has  been 
practically  exterminated  in  portions  of  New  England,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  and  New  Jersey.      The  worst  injury  has  been 


FOREST   INSECTS   AND    FUNGI  II9 

done  on  Long  Island,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  City, 
from  which  as  a  center  it  is  spreading.  Only  since  1905  has 
the  disease  been  generally  recognized,  and  in  New  England  it 
was  little  noticed  until  1907.  Southwestern  Connecticut  is  the 
most  seriously  infected  region  here;  and  in  Fairfield  County  the 
chestnut  has  been  nearly  all  killed.  As  we  proceed  from  south- 
western Connecticut,  through  that  state  and  then  into  Massa- 
chusetts and  northern  New  England,  the  number  of  infected 
trees  is  less  and  less  noticeable.  But  the  disease  may  be  found 
practically  over  the  entire  New  England  range  of  the  species. 
North  of  Connecticut  no  great  amount  of  timber  has  as  yet 
been  killed. 

The  chestnut  bark  disease  attacks  and  kills  the  cambium 
layer,  which  lies  between  the  bark  and  the  wood.  This  is  the 
growing  layer  of  the  tree  and  when  it  is  girdled,  death  of  the 
portion  above  the  injured  place  results.  As  the  disease  is 
distributed  by  the  spores  (virtually  seeds)  which  are  easily 
blown  by  winds,  or  carried  by  birds,  its  spread  is  rapid.  These 
spores  cannot  attack  a  tree  except  through  a  wound,  but  as 
every  tree  has  many  slight  wounds  or  openings  in  its  bark,  it 
is  rarely  that  a  tree  is  exempt  from  the  disease.  When  a  spore 
finds  lodgment  it  quickly  develops  a  fungous  growth  spreading 
in  the  cambium  layer  at  first  in  a  somewhat  elliptical  form  until 
finally  it  girdles  the  branch  or  trunk.  It  may  also  work  up  and 
down  the  trunk. 

Trees  of  all  ages  from  the  young  sprout  to  those  of  lumber 
value  are  attacked.  In  an  old  tree  with  thick  bark  the  disease 
usually  enters  at  the  top  and  works  downward.  On  young  trees, 
with  easily  wounded  bark,  the  disease  may  start  at  any  point. 
When  old  trees  are  injured  by  fire,  even  to  a  very  slight  extent, 
the  disease  will  find  entrance  at  the  base. 

There  are  several  ways  in  which  the  work  of  this  fungus  can 
be  recognized.  The  spots  or  cankers  are  apt  to  have  an  ellip- 
tical form,  and  the  bark  over  the  injured  part  is  somewhat 
reddish  and  sometimes  appears  sunken.  Pustules,  of  a  yellow- 
ish or  orange  color,  containing  the  spores  can  often  be  seen  pro- 


I20 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


truding  through  the  bark.  These  fruiting  bodies  are  the  only 
part  of  the  fungus  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  usually  occur 
in  the  crevices  of  the  bark.  Often  they  may  be  seen  near  the 
base  of  a  mature  tree,  which  to  the  observer  appears  otherwise 


Fig.  45.  —  A  forest-grown  chestnut  on  the  edge  of  a  recent  cutting 
killed  the  previous  season  by  the  chestnut  bark  disease. 


sound.  These  pustules  are  an  unmistakable  sign  of  the  disease. 
When  the  trees  are  in  foliage,  diseased  individuals  may  be 
recognized  by  their  bare  branches,  or  branches  with  partly 
shriveled  leaves  or  burrs.     Frequently  half  a  tree  or  a  limb 


FOREST   INSECTS  AND   FUNGI  121 

here  and  there  may  be  dead,  and  the  remainder  of  the  tree  be 
in  full  fohage. 

Another  sign  of  the  disease  is  the  presence  of  thrifty  one- 
year  sprouts  on  the  trunks  of  fairly  large  trees.  Usually  on 
close  examination  near  or  above  these  sprouts  can  be  found  a 
spot  with  other  characteristic  symptoms. 

As  yet  no  method  of  successfully  combating  the  chestnut 
bark  disease  is  known.  When  a  tree  in  the  forest  is  attacked  it 
is  virtually  doomed.  In  the  case  of  valuable  shade  trees,  cutting 
out  the  infected  parts  has  in  some  cases  been  successful.  The 
exposed  face  of  the  cutting  must  be  covered  with  paint  or  tar. 
If  this  is  done  and  all  infected  spots  are  completely  removed, 
the  tree  may  be  saved.  Such  treatment  is,  of  course,  out  of  the 
question  in  handling  forests  on  account  of  the  expense.  The 
fungus  cannot  be  reached  by  spraying  as  it  is  protected  by 
the  bark  of  the  tree.  Several  pathologists  who  have  studied  its 
ravages  predict  the  extermination  of  the  chestnut  unless  some- 
thing unforeseen  stops  the  disease. 

If  all  the  infected  trees,  in  a  section  where  the  disease  is  just 
beginning  to  spread,  could  be  cut  down  and  the  brush  and  in- 
fected bark  burned,  this  evil  might  be  checked  in  that  locaUty, 
but,  unfortunately,  all  injured  trees  cannot  be  found.  In  a 
forested  region  it  is  doubtful  if  any  method  will  be  successful. 
It  should  be  stated  that  Dr.  G.  P.  Clinton,  Botanist  for  the 
Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  holds  a  some- 
what different  view  of  the  situation  ^  from  that  commonly 
expressed.  He  believes  that  the  chestnut  bark  disease,  although 
a  virulent  disease,  would  not  have  caused  the  damage  to  the 
chestnut,  which  has  already  resulted,  had  it  not  been  powerfully 
assisted  by  some  other  cause.  Such  a  cause  he  finds  in  the  un- 
usual weather  conditions  existing  in  Connecticut  since  the  year 
1902.  Winter  injury  was  especially  noticeable  following  the 
winter  of  1903-04.  The  severe  droughts  which  have  occurred 
in  the   last  few  years,  especially  in    1907   and    191 1,  have  in- 

1  See  Report  of  the  Station  Botanist:  Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  Report,  1908. 


122  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

creased  the  injury  due  to  winter  killing.  It  is  probable  that 
much  of  the  injury  to  the  chestnut  is  due  directly  to  winter 
killing,  and  the  effects  of  the  droughts  which  have  injured  other 
trees  in  the  same  region. 

With  such  weakening  of  the  chestnut,  due  to  unfavorable 
weather  conditions,  the  bark  disease  has  been  able  to  spread 
and  develop  far  more  rapidly  and  with  more  disastrous  results 
than  would  ordinarily  occur.  Whether  this  relation  between 
weather  conditions  and  the  activity  of  the  disease  actually 
exists  is  not  yet  proven.  Within  the  next  few  years,  however, 
providing  severe  droughts  and  abnormal  winters  do  not  occur, 
the  truth  should  become  apparent.  If  the  seasons  are  normal 
and  the  disease  does  not  develop  with  the  same  rapidity  as  in 
the  past.  Dr.  Clinton's  theory  may  be  accepted.  But  if,  after 
several  normal  seasons,  the  disease  still  continues  its  devastat- 
ing progress,  the  injury  must  be  attributed  to  the  fungus  alone. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  he  is  correct,  and  that  the  chestnut  in 
New  England  will  be  saved  from  extermination. 

Tra?netes  pint. 

Trametes  pini  is  a  fungus  attacking  practically  all  the  impor- 
tant conifers  of  New  England;  red  and  white  spruce,  white  pine, 
hemlock,  larch,  and  balsam.  Von  Schrenk  considers  larch  most 
susceptible  to  its  attacks,  the  spruces  next,  and  the  balsam  least. 
It  is  a  common  and  extremely  dangerous  disease,  entering 
living  trees,  old  enough  to  form  heartwood,  through  wounds  or 
any  opening  in  the  bark.  From  the  point  of  entry  it  spreads 
up  and  down  the  trunk,  working  both  in  the  heartwood  and  the 
sapwood,  except  in  white  pine,  where  it  flourishes  only  in  the 
heartwood.  Finally  even  the  roots  and  the  larger  branches  may 
be  infected.  As  the  wood  is  not  entirely  destroyed  by  the 
fungus  the  tree  remains  standing,  but  is  so  weakened  that 
eventually  it  is  broken  off  by  a  strong  wind.  The  lumber  value 
of  the  infected  portion  is  entirely  destroyed. 

The  fungus  can  be  identified  because  the  diseased  wood  is 
honeycombed  and  is  filled  with  small  holes.     These  holes  often 


FOREST  INSECTS   AND   FUNGI  1 23 

have  a  shiny  white  hning,  and  between  the  holes  will  be  thin 
layers  of  wood  only  partially  destroyed.  The  best  outward 
indication  of  the  disease  is  the  pitch  which  exudes  on  the  bark, 
sometimes  in  considerable  quantities. 

The  fungus^  is  spread  by  spores  blown  by  the  wind. 

These  come  from  fruiting  bodies  located  usually  at  old  knot 
holes  and  on  the  stubs  of  dead  branches,  although  on  spruce  at 
least  the  fruiting  bodies  may  form  in  dry  crevices  of  the  bark. 

The  light  reddish-brown  color  of  the  lower  surface  of  the 
fruiting  bodies  is  characteristic,  but  their  form  varies  from  a 
bracket  shape  to  that  of  a  plate,  following  the  configuration  of 
the  trunk  or  branch. 

There  is  no  practical  method  for  use  in  forestry  of  combating 
Trametes  pini.  Diseased  trees,  as  soon  as  discovered,  should  be 
cut  and  utilized,  but  as  such  trees  are  often  scattered  it  is  not 
always  possible  to  remove  them.  If  all  diseased  trees  could  be 
discovered  quickly  and  removed  the  loss  from  this  fungus  would 
be  greatly  lessened. 

Poly  poms  schweinitzii. 

This  fungus  is  common  on  balsam,  red  and  white  spruce, 
white  pine,  and  arborvitae;  it  attacks  living  trees  of  all  ages  and 
causes  extensive  losses. 

The  fungus  first  enters  underground,  through  the  root  system, 
but  soon  spreads  to  the  trunk,  up  which  it  may  extend  its 
growth  for  forty  feet  or  more.  Diseased  trees  are  ordinarily 
found  in  groups,  because  the  fungus  spreads  from  tree  to  tree 
through  the  ground.  As  the  disease  progresses  the  root  system 
and  trunk  become  weakened  and  finally  the  tree  is  uprooted  or 
broken  off  near  the  base. 

Like  Trametes  pini  this  fungus  destroys  the  lumber  value  of 
the  infected  portion.  Probably  the  greatest  loss  is  found  in  the 
balsam,  of  which  species  nearly  all  the  older  trees  are  attacked. 

1  A  detailed  description  of  Trametes  pini  will  be  found  in  U.  S.  Division  of 
Vegetable  Physiology  and  Pathology,  Bull.  25,  entitled,  "  Some  Diseases  of  New 
England  Conifers,"  by  Von  Schrenk. 


124  FORESTRY  IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

Wood  attacked  by  Polyporus  schweinitzii^  has  a  cheesy  con- 
sistency, is  yellowish  in  color,  and  is  easily  powdered  when 
dry.  In  the  last  stages  of  decay  it  is  very  brittle.  These  char- 
acteristics of  the  diseased  wood  and  the  large,  brightly  colored 
fruiting  bodies  are  the  best  means  of  field  identification.  The 
fruiting  bodies  when  young  are  a  yellowish-brown  color,  but  in 
a  few  days  become  reddish  brown.  The  underside  is  some- 
times rose  colored,  and  if  bruised  quickly  turns  dark  red.  They 
take  the  form  of  brackets,  ordinarily  several  in  number,  fastened 
one  above  the  other,  usually  arising  from  the  roots  of  the  tree, 
near  the  base  of  which  they  may  be  seen  growing,  in  the  months 
of  July  and  August.  Occasionally  the  fruiting  bodies  are  borne 
on  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  Fully  grown  specimens  range  from 
four  inches  in  diameter  to  about  fourteen  inches. 

On  account  of  its  spreading  underground,  and  entering  the 
tree  unseen,  the  fungus  is  hard  to  detect,  until  in  the  advanced 
stages,  and  hence  difficult  to  combat.  A  European  practice 
is  to  surround  infected  trees  and  groups  with  a  deep  trench 
which  prevents  the  further  spread  of  the  fungus.  Such  a 
method  is  as  yet  impracticable  in  New  England,  and  the  best 
that  can  be  done  is  to  utilize  diseased  trees  before  their  value 
is  entirely  gone. 

The  White  Pine  Blister  Rust,  or  European  Currant 
Rust  {Peridermium  strohi)r 

Other  species  of  Peridermium  have  been  common  in  New 
England  on  pitch  pine  and  Scotch  pine,  as  well  as  other  plants, 
but  until  recently  the  white  pine  was  exempt. 

As  a  result  of  the  growing  enthusiasm  for  forest  planting 
which  has  spread  so  rapidly  during  the  past  few  years,  a  large 
quantity   of  nursery  stock  has  been  imported   from  Europe. 

^  For  a  more  detailed  description  of  the  fungus  see  Bull.  25,  U.  S.  Division  of 
Vegetable  Physiology  and  Pathology,  entitled,  "  Some  Diseases  of  New  England 
Conifers,"  by  Von  Schrenk. 

2  See  Circular  38,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
"  European  Currant  Rust  on  the  White  Pine  in  America,"  by  Spaulding. 


FOREST  INSECTS  AND  FUNGI  12$ 

In  June,  1909,  some  of  the  stock  thus  imported  into  New  York 
State  was  found  to  be  infected  with  this  fungus  and  on  exami- 
nation it  was  discovered  that  stock  imported  into  other  states 
was  Hkewise  diseased.  In  fact  the  fungus  has  been  found  on 
trees  imported  several  years  previous  to  1909,  which  makes  its 
eradication  somewhat  more  difficult.  In  nearly  all  cases  the 
diseased  stock  has  been  traced  to  one  European  nursery,  that 
of  J.  Heins  Sohne,  of  Halstenbek,  Germany.  The  fact  that  this 
immense  nursery,  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world,  should  know- 
ingly export  to  this  country  diseased  stock,  should  deter  Amer- 
icans from  all  future  dealing  with  it,  even  after  this  disease  has 
been  exterminated. 

In  Europe  this  species  of  Peridemiium  has  long  been  common 
on  Finns  cembra,  or  stone  pine,  which  is  the  European  variety 
of  white  pine.  Of  late  years  with  the  multipKcation  of  planta- 
tions of  our  American  species  throughout  Europe  the  disease 
has  attacked  these.  In  some  regions  it  has  caused  much  havoc 
especially  in  nurseries.  In  certain  places,  notably,  in  Holland; 
at  Oldenburg,  Germany;  and  at  Moscow,  Russia,  the  disease 
is  so  serious  that  the  cultivation  of  white  pine  has  been  aban- 
doned. Young  trees  are  killed  outright  by  the  disease,  and  the 
small  branches  of  large  trees  are  killed. 

The  affected  seedlings  have  a  peculiarly  stunted  appearance, 
and  the  stem  is  abnormally  enlarged  and  swollen  in  places. 
New  growth  is  very  short.  The  orange  fruiting  bodies  on  the 
stem,  which,  however,  occur  only  in  the  spring,  furnish  the  best 
means  of  identification. 

This  fungus  is  one  stage  of  the  bhster  rust  of  currants  and 
gooseberries  known  as  Cronatimn  rubicola.  In  other  words, 
like  the  wheat  rust,  cedar  apple,  and  many  similar  fungi,  it  is 
a  fungus  which  requires  two  hosts  to  complete  its  fife  history. 
The  spores  from  an  infested  currant  or  gooseberry  bush  are 
blown  to  a  neighboring  white  pine  tree.  Here  they  germinate 
and  the  mycelium  vegetates  in  the  inner  bark  until  the  second 
spring  after  infection.  Then  the  diseased  bark  thickens  and 
the  stem  becomes  swollen.     The  fruiting  bodies  break  through 


126  FORESTRY  IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

the  bark  sometime  between  the  middle  of  April  and  June, 
according  to  the  locality  and  the  season.  They  are  of  a  light, 
orange  color  and  project  from  the  stem  about  one-eighth  of  an 
inch.  They  soon  break  open  and  the  spores  are  scattered  by 
the  wind.  After  the  spores  are  gone,  the  remains  of  the  fruit- 
ing bodies  are  washed  off,  leaving  empty  fissures  in  the  bark  to 
show  where  they  were.  The  spores  from  the  pine,  if  they 
chance  to  fall  upon  currant  leaves,  infect  them  in  turn.  On 
these  leaves  in  fifteen  to  forty  days  new  fruiting  bodies  are 
formed,  the  spores  of  which  may  infect  either  currant  or  pine. 
The  spores  produced  on  the  pine  cannot  directly  infect  pine, 
but  must  first  infect  currants.  On  the  pine  the  fungus  remains 
alive  as  long  as  the  stem  on  which  it  grows;  but  in  the  currant 
it  is  not  thought  to  be  perennial.  Fortunately  the  spores  are 
not  apt  to  be  carried  over  one  hundred  yards. 
The  best  means  of  combating  the  disease  are: 
(i)  To  examine  all  infested  plantations  and  burn  all  currant 
or  gooseberry  bushes,  wild  or  cultivated,  within  five  hundred 
feet  of  the  plantation.  This  should  be  done  between  the 
middle  of  July  and  the  fall  of  the  currant  leaves. 

(2)  To  inspect  imported  white  pine  trees  and  burn  all  that 
show  any  symptoms  of  the  disease;  or  better  yet  use  only  native- 
grown  plants. 

(3)  To  inspect,  for  two  years  at  least,  all  white  pines  located 
near  infected  currant  bushes  and  burn  all  that  become  infected. 

White-heart  Rot.     False-tinder  Fungus,  Poplar  Disease 

{Fomes  igniarius)} 

The  principal  diseases  of  deciduous  forest  trees  are  caused  by 
a  group  of  fungi  which  grow  in  the  heartwood  of  trees.  This 
species  is  characteristic  of  the  group.  It  is  impossible  to  recog- 
nize the  presence  of  the  fungus  during  the  early  stages  of  the 
disease,  in  fact  not  until  the  fruiting  bodies  form  on  the  exterior 
of  the  trunk.     When  these  appear  the  tree  is  thoroughly  diseased 

1  See  Bull.  149,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
"  Diseases  of  Deciduous  Forest  Trees." 


FOREST  INSECTS  AND  FUNGI 


127 


for  two  or  three  feet  above  and  below  the  fruiting  bodies.  In 
its  final  stages  the  heartwood  is  completely  destroyed  so  that 
the  tree  is  weakened  and  Hable  to  be  broken  off  by  windstorms. 
On  examination  the  center  of  the  tree  will  be  found  of  a  pulpy 
consistency  definitely  limited  on  the  outside  by  one  or  more 
narrow  black  layers. 


Fig.  46.  —  The  fallen  chestnut,  now  6  inches  in  diameter,  was  formerly  injured  by  fire 
which  allowed  a  fungus  to  enter.  This  fungus  hollowed  out  the  stem  for  over  2  feet 
from  the  ground  leaving  untouched  a  mere  shell  of  wood  on  the  outside.  The  first 
heavy  wind  broke  the  tree. 


This  disease  causes  greater  damage  to  poplar  than  to  other 
trees,  but  is  by  no  means  confined  to  the  poplar.  It  occurs  on 
more  species  of  broadleafs  than  any  similar  fungus.  It  has  been 
found  on  poplar  from  Maine  to  Oregon  and  from  Canada  to 
New  Mexico,  and  undoubtedly  exists  wherever  poplar  lives. 
In  New  York  and  New  England  the  beech  also  is  very  commonly 
affected. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  of  our  so-called  punks,  or 
shelf  fungi,  which  grow  upon  living  trees.  The  fruiting  body  is 
commonly  more  or  less  hoof  shaped,  the  thickness  being  about 
equal  to  the  width.     The  upper  surface,  at  first  smooth,  becomes 


128 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


concentrically  marked  with  age.  They  grow  to  great  age  as 
indicated  approximately  by  the  number  of  layers.  The  lower 
surface  is  gray  to  reddish  brown;  the  edge  yellowish  brown. 

The  spores  enter  the  tree  trunk  through  some  wound,  as  an 
old  branch  stub.  The  fruiting  bodies  usually  form  at  the  point 
of  original  infection.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  a  dozen  of 
these  bodies  on  the  trunk  of  an  aspen.  Examinations  by 
Spaulding  have  proven  that  the  fungus  continues  to  thrive  after 
the  death  of  its  host. 


Fig.  47.  — An  oak  broken  oS  by  the  wind.  The  base  of  the  tree  was  honeycombed  by  a 
fungus  which  entered  through  old  lire  scars.  Wind  cannot  uproot  an  oak  but  fre- 
quently breaks  off  weakened  trees. 


A  tree  affected  with  white  rot  may  hve  for  a  number  of  years, 
especially  such  long-lived  species  as  oak  and  beech.  But  with 
such  trees  as  aspen,  where  the  disease  may  encroach  upon  the 
sapwood,  the  trees  may  be  killed  by  the  disease.  The  death  of 
trees  is  a  minor  result  of  the  disease  compared  with  the  great 
destruction  of  wood  which  it  causes. 

Two  methods  of  prevention  are  possible:  one  consists  in  the 
prevention  of  wounds,  and  the  other  in  the  removal  of  the 
sources    of    infection.     The    former    method    is   impracticable 


FOREST   INSECTS   AND    FUNGI  1 29 

except  in  the  case  of  ornamental  trees.  Infected  trees  should 
always  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  disease  is  apparent.  Usually 
this  will  be  soon  enough  to  save  part  of  the  wood  or  lumber. 
It  is  of  no  avail  to  destroy  the  fruiting  bodies  alone  as  the  fungus 
will  continue  to  grow  in  the  tree  and  produce  other  punks. 

White  Pine  Blight. 

It  is  now  plain  that  this  injury  is  not  due  to  any  insect,  and 
apparently  not  to  any  fungus,  but  probably  is  caused  by  un- 
favorable weather  conditions,  such  as  winter  injury  due  to 
extremely  cold  weather  without  much  snow,  or  to  extremely 
dry  summers,  or  a  combination  of  the  two.  This  bhght  is 
characterized  by  the  death  of  the  end  of  the  needles,  from  one- 
fourth  to  one-third  thereof  turning  a  bright  reddish  brown. 
Sometimes  the  whole  needle  dies,  giving  the  tree  a  brown 
appearance,  but  the  tip  of  the  needle  is  always  affected  hrst. 
Trees  that  have  been  attacked  look  as  if  they  had  been  scorched 
by  fire.  Young  trees  are  more  susceptible  to  this  form  of  injury 
than  old  ones.  On  young  trees,  often  the  needles  will  wither 
and  curl  up  much  as  if  scorched,  and  very  frequently  the  twigs 
also  are  killed  back.  In  Maine, ^  in  exposed  localities,  acres  of 
young  trees  which  were  apparently  healthy  in  the  fall  of  1907 
were  entirely  dead  by  the  last  of  May,  1908.  Usually  the 
injury  was  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  north  and  northwest 
sides  of  the  young  trees.  Injury  here  was  not  limited  to  pines, 
but  spruces,  firs,  and  other  conifers  showed  the  same  trouble 
and  in  the  same  manner. 

In  most  parts  of  New  England  the  disease  was  first  noticed 
in  1907.  It  was  particularly  widespread  during  the  summer  of 
1907,  and  many  feared  the  pine  forests  were  doomed.  It  was 
thoroughly  advertised  throughout  New  England,  and  many 
young  pine  stands  were  unnecessarily  cut.  Few  trees  died, 
however,  and  conditions  were  much  better  the  next  year.  By 
1909  it  had  practically  disappeared  in  most  sections  of  New 

1  See  Report  of  Forest  Commissioner  of  ]\Iaine.  1909,  pp.  22-24. 


I30 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


England,  but  curiously  enough  was  much  worse  in  certain 
localities,  as,  for  example,  in  the  region  about  Burlington,  Ver- 
mont. 

The  pine  woods  belonging  to  the  University  of  Vermont 
were  carefully  examined  in  August,  1909,  and  the  affected  trees 
were  numbered.  Another  examination  made  in  the  summer  of 
1910  showed  seven  additional  trees  had  been  attacked,  but  of 
the  112  previously  found  to  be  diseased  the  conditions  were  as 
follows : 


Number  of 
trees. 

Per  cent  of 
trees. 

Dead. 

6 
55 
13 
38 

5-3 
49.1 
II   6 

34  0 

Total 

112 

This  study  shows  that  the  condition  of  the  stand  is  much 
improved,  which  would  indicate  that  dry  summers  may  have 
an  important  bearing  on  the  malady,  as  the  summers  of  1908 
and  1909  were  very  dry,  while  that  of  1910  was  normal  in  respect 
to  rainfall.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  there  is  no  real  disease 
causing  this  blight,  but  that  it  is  due  to  weather  conditions. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

FOREST  FIRES. 

This  chapter  deals  with  forest  fires  in  general.  In  later 
chapters  under  each  region  the  particular  fire  problems  of  that 
region  are  discussed  at  length. 

Kinds  of  Fires  and  Damage  Done. 

American  forests  have  suffered  more  from  fires  than  those  of 
any  other  country  and  few  regions  have  entirely  escaped.  The 
character  of  these  fires  and  the  damage  done  by  them  depends 
very  largely  upon  the  type  of  forest.  It  is  only  in  coniferous 
forests  that  fires  assume  immense  proportions  and  become  en- 
tirely uncontrollable  and  for  this  reason  Maine,  with  its  rolHng 
hills  of  spruce,  has  from  its  earliest  history  suffered  more  from 
fires  than  most  parts  of  New  England.  In  these  coniferous 
forests,  fires  often  sweep  through  the  tops  of  the  trees,  and,  driven 
along  by  strong  winds,  advance  over  several  miles  of  forest  in  a 
day.  These  are  called  "crown  fires."  Most  of  the  evergreen 
trees  are  killed,  but  here  and  there  a  clump  sometimes  escapes. 
The  fire  may  jump  from  one  side  of  a  ravine  to  the  other  leaving 
the  trees  in  the  bottom  uninjured,  and  while  the  hardwoods 
adjoining  conifers  are  usually  severely  scorched,  large  areas  of 
these  deciduous  trees  form  an  effective  check  to  the  spread  of  the 
flames  in  the  tops. 

The  dry  sand  plains  of  Plymouth  County,  Massachusetts,  have 
been  an  incessant  breeding  ground  for  forest  fires,  as  the  cran- 
berry growers  of  the  region  have,  until  recently,  taken  little  care 
for  the  forest.  Fires  burn  over  thousands  of  acres  annually  and 
the  result  has  been  that  the  forest  growth  has  continually  de- 
teriorated until  it  is  of  very  little  value. 

131 


132 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


The  hardwood  forests  of  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts  are 
largely  composed  of  oak,  which  has  a  tendency  to  retain  its  fohage 
over  winter.  The  result  is  that  in  the  dry  season,  which  invari- 
ably comes  in  April  and  May,  these  leaves  form  a  ready  tinder 
for  the  innumerable  little  fires  of  the  region.  These  fires  con- 
fined to  the  leaves  and  underbrush  are  called  "surface  fires.'' 
The  birch  and  maple  of  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire  shed  their 
leaves  in  the  fall;  they  are  matted  down  and  rotted  by  the  winter 


Fig.  48.  —  A  group  of  chestnuts  killed  outright  by  surface  fires. 


snows,  which  are  much  heavier  than  in  southern  New  England, 
and  the  result  is  that  these  states,  with  few  unbroken  areas  of 
conifers,  are  more  free  from  forest  fires  than  any  other  part  of 
New  England. 

These  surface  fires  seldom  kill  the  trees  of  a  forest  outright,  but 
wound  them  so  severely  that  they  become  infested  with  fungous 
diseases,  make  Httle  growth,  and  eventually  die.  The  severity 
of  the  wounds  inflicted  depends  very  largely  upon  the  strength 
of  the  wind  at  the  time  of  the  fire,  the  amount  of  inflammable 
material  on  the  ground,  and  the  kind  and  size  of  trees  in  the  forest. 
With  a  strong  wind  the  flames  often  lap  around  the  trunk  of  a 


FOREST  FIRES  133 

tree  and,  in  the  case  of  a  conifer,  leap  into  the  top.  Some  farmers 
claim  that  annual  fires  are  a  good  thing,  because  the  ground  is 
thus  kept  free  of  material  which  would  make  a  really  hot  fire. 
This,  however,  is  not  true,  for  every  fire,  in  New  England  at  any 
rate,  does  more  harm  than  good.  Some  trees,  as  the  chestnut, 
are  much  more  easily  damaged  by  fire  than  others,  like  the  oak, 
hickory,  and  birch ;  and  practically  all  trees  are  more  tender  in 
youth  than  later  when  the  bark  has  thickened. 

Besides  the  crown  fire  which  leaps  from  tree  top  to  tree  top, 
and  the  surface  fire  which  runs  over  the  ground  burning  the  fitter, 
underbrush,  etc.,  a  third  class  of  fire  occurs  in  the  coniferous 
forests  of  the  north.  In  the  forests  composed  of  such  trees  as 
spruce  and  fir  the  ground  is  often  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of 
decaying  vegetable  matter,  such  as  needles  and  twigs,  which  in 
seasons  of  drought  become  very  dry.  If  a  fire  once  starts  in  this 
"duft\  "  as  it  is  called,  it  may  smoulder  for  weeks  on  a  small  area 
of  less  than  a  half  acre.  At  any  time  such  a  "ground  fire "  is  apt 
to  flare  up,  if  a  strong  wind  arises,  and  may  become  a  serious 
surface  or  even  a  crown  fire. 

Besides  the  damage  to  grown  trees  one  of  the  worst  effects  of 
a  forest  fire  is  the  killing  of  the  small  forest  seedfings  and  sap- 
lings. This  is  a  damage  which  is  often  overlooked  and  it  is  more 
responsible  for  the  present  worthless  condition  of  milHons  of 
acres  in  the  United  States  than  any  other  cause.  Forest  seed- 
lings, especially  those  of  the  evergreens,  are  practically  sure  to  be 
destroyed  by  any  fire  passing  through  them.  We  do  not  realize 
the  relatively  long  time  required  for  seedlings  to  grow  the  first 
ten  feet  in  height,  as  compared  to  that  of  subsequent  growth.  It 
requires  from  ten  to  twenty  years  for  most  trees  to  reach  the 
height  of  ten  feet,  while  many  suppressed  spruce  and  hemlock 
are  fifty  years  old  before  they  reach  it.  The  destruction  of 
seedlings,  therefore,  retards  the  growth  of  the  forest.  It  often 
happens,  too,  that  the  seed  trees  have  been  removed  in  the  mean- 
time or  are  killed  by  the  same  fire.  In  this  case  natural  repro- 
duction of  that  species  will  be  prevented  for  many  years  and  the 
land  will  either  be  covered  with  a  worthless  tangle  of  brush  or  be 


134  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

seeded  in  by  some  light-seeded  tree,  such  as  the  paper  birch  or 
poplar,  or  must  be  planted. 

The  composition  of  a  New  England  forest  is  invariably  injured 
by  fire,  for  it  happens  that  the  trees  which  first  come  up  on  burned 
areas  in  addition  to  huckleberry,  raspberry,  and  other  shrubs, 
are  inferior,  such  as  poplar,  birch,  and  bird  cherry.  In  northern 
New  England  these  often  form  pure  forests  after  a  fire.  Seed- 
lings of  the  original  conifers  may  finally  come  in,  and  in  the  course 


By  permission  of  ike  Massachusetts  State  Forester- 
Fig.  49.  —  The  start  of  a  forest  fire  on  dry,  sandy,  and  brushy  land.     This  could  easily  be 
put  out  now  by  a  patrolman  but  if  left  alone  soon  will  develop  into  a  serious  con- 
flagration. 

of  fifty  or  one  hundred  years  the  original  character  of  the  forest 
reasserts  itself.  In  regions  where  trees  sprout  after  being  killed 
back  by  fire  the  character  of  the  forest  is  not  so  greatly  changed, 
but  the  quality  is  seriously  injured. 

The  question  often  arises  why  it  is  that  softwoods  so  frequently 
succeed  hardwoods  when  the  latter  are  cut  or  burned  off  and 
vice  versa.  It  is  wholly  a  matter  of  seed  supply,  as  may  be 
easily  demonstrated  by  proper  cutting  of  a  forest.  Softwoods 
can  be  made  to  succeed  themselves  by  leaving  enough  seed  trees 
at  the  time  of  cutting,  and  this  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 


FOREST   FIRES  135 

problems  of  the  forester  about  which  the  various  silvicultural 
systems  described  in  the  first  chapter  have  developed.  A  careful 
examination  of  any  softwood  forest  will  reveal  a  great  many 
deciduous  seedhngs  on  the  ground.  Thgse,  together  with  the  old 
hardwoods  that  the  ordinary  lumberman  would  leave,  are  amply 
able  to  change  the  appearance  of  a  softwood  to  hardwood  forest 
when  the  fo'rmer  is  cut  off,  or  when  the  evergreens  are  burned. 

In  a  deciduous  forest  a  surface  fire  may  pass  through  and  in 
a  few  hours  burn  out  except  in  a  few  dead  stumps.  But  in  a 
coniferous  forest,  when  a  fire  once  gets  in  the  duff,  it  becomes  a 
ground  fire  which  may  smoulder  for  weeks  or  months  and  eventu- 
ally be  fanned  into  a  serious  blaze  by  a  strong  wind. 

An  examination  of  the  soil  just  under  the  "duff"  or  leaf  Htter 
of  a  forest  will  show  that  the  mineral  particles  are  mixed  with 
decomposed  vegetable  materials.  The  percentage  of  those  ma- 
terials grows  less  the  deeper  down  one  digs.  This  top  soil  is 
called  humus,  and  it  is  very  valuable  as  fertilizer,  on  account 
of  the  nitrogen  it  contains,  and  because  of  its  water-absorbing 
power.  One  of  the  most  serious  effects  of  a  forest  fire  is  the 
burning  out  of  this  humus,^  resulting  in  a  drying  out  of  the  soil. 
On  steep  slopes,  especially  when  this  binding  and  absorptive 
agent  has  been  removed,  the  soil  is  frequently  washed  off,  leaving 
bare  ledges  which  will  probably  never  again  be  reclothed  with 
soil.  In  such  situations  the  snow  melts  rapidly  in  the  spring  and 
the  water  flows  off  immediately,  so  that,  indirectly,  these  fires 
have  an  important  bearing  on  water  flow  and  freshets. 

The  most  severe  forest  fires  occur  on  tracts  which  have  been 
lumbered,  where  the  ground  is  covered  with  the  tops  of  pines 
and  other  conifers.  For  this  reason  it  is  very  desirable  that  these 
tops  should  be  destroyed  at  the  time  of  cutting,  either  by  careful 
burning  or  by  lopping  off  the  branches  so  that  they  will  at  once 
come  in  contact  with  the  soil  and  be  rotted. 

Fires  are  not  as  common  in  New  England  as  formerly.     The 

^  Where  there  is  considerable  soil  with  the  humus  and  the  fire  is  not  very  severe, 
the  humus  may  not  burn,  but  the  removal  of  the  litter  prevents  formation  of  more 
humus.     If  fires  are  repeated  the  humus  may  entirely  disappear. 


136  FORESTRY  IN  NEW   ENGLAND 

great  forestry  educational  movement  has  done  much  to  make 
people  more  careful;  still  there  is  room  for  a  great  deal  of  im- 
provement, and  not  until  the  danger  of  fire  is  largely  ehminated 
will  land  owners  be  induced  to  practice  forestry  extensively. 
Up  to  the  present  time,  forest  fire  risk  is  so  great  that  no  insur- 
ance company  in  this  country  will  insure  standing  timber. 
Every  landowner  must  furnish  his  own  insurance  by  introducing 
the  preventive  measures  which  are  described  under  the  different 
forest  regions. 

Causes  of  Fires. 

In  the  different  sections  of  the  United  States,  the  causes  of 
forest  fires  differ  according  to  the  nature  of  the  country.  In 
large,  unbroken  forest  areas,  hke  the  Adirondacks  and  the  Maine 
woods,  probably  the  largest  percentage  of  fires  has  been  set  by 
locomotives  on  the  railroads  crossing  the  region.  Heavy  freight 
trains  ascending  steep  grades  are  particularly  apt  to  throw  out 
five  cinders  which  readily  start  a  fire  in  the  dry  leaves  and  grass 
beside  the  right  of  way.  On  every  railroad  there  are  certain 
places  where  there  is  special  danger,  as,  for  example,  on  sharp 
curves  between  high  banks,  particularly  if  on  a  steep  grade,  where 
the  engine  is  so  much  tipped  that  its  cinders  fall  on  the  bank 
before  they  have  had  time  to  cool.  No  effective  spark  arrester 
has  thus  far  gained  general  use,  but  extensive  and  very  satis- 
factory experiments  ^  have  recently  been  conducted  with  new 
inventions  in  this  line  by  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Rail- 
road at  Chicago  and  by  the  American  Spark  Arrester  Company  of 
Indianapolis  at  Purdue  University.  The  best  way  of  preventing 
these  railroad  fires  is  to  keep  the  right  of  way  as  clean  as  possible, 
and  during  dry  seasons  to  thoroughly  patrol  it.  One  man  in  a 
hand  car  closely  following  every  freight  train  during  such  seasons 
can  put  out  a  great  many  incipient  fires.  In  New  York  the  State 
Public  Utilities  Commission  has  required  the  railroads  operating 
in  the  Adirondacks  and  Catskills  to  burn  only  oil  in  their  loco- 
motives during  certain  months  of  the  year. 

1  See  Report  State  Forester  of  Wisconsin,  1909-10,  p.  119. 


FOREST  FIRES  137 

In  certain  seasons  in  these  large  forest  sections  many  fires  are 
started  by  the  carelessness  of  hunters  and  fishermen.  Probably 
the  most  common  kind  of  fires  set  by  this  class  is  due  to  aban- 
doned camp  fires.  One  cannot  be  too  careful  in  the  building  of 
a  fire  in  the  woods  to  surround  it  with  a  ditch  dug  down  to 
mineral  soil,  so  that  the  fire  cannot  spread  in  the  duff.  When 
leaving  a  camp  fire  one  should  be  certain  that  it  is  completely 
out.     Hunters  and  fishermen,  as  well  as  others,  also  start  a  good 


By  permission  of  the  Connecticut  State  Forester. 

Fig.  50.  —  A  train  on  an  upgrade  casting  sparks  on  the  adjoining  woodland.     Fortunately 

this  has  been  burned  over  and  is  in  condition  to  act  as  a  fire  line.     At  the  left  the  work 

of  burning  over  a  strip  next  the  track  is  in  progress. 

many  fires  by  carelessly  throwing  down  lighted  stubs  of  cigars 
or  cigarettes  and  burning  matches.  It  is  hard  to  realize  how 
easily  a  fire  may  be  set  in  this  way  in  dry  weather.  Hunters, 
after  hedgehogs  and  coons  in  the  north  and  possums  in  the  south, 
often  start  forest  fires  in  trying  to  smoke  the  animals  out  of 
hollow  trees. 

In  farm  communities  most  forest  fires  start  through  careless- 
ness in  burning  brush.  Many  people  seem  to  be  entirely  lacking 
in  common  sense  in  selecting  a  time  and  place  for  burning  brush 


138  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

or  rubbish.  Such  fires  should  never  be  started  when  there  is 
a  strong  wind  or  in  dry  weather,  wind  or  no  wind. 

In  manufacturing  communities  mill  hands  in  the  woods  on 
hoHdays  and  Sundays  are  responsible  for  starting  numerous 
fires. 

Besides  these  fires,  due  to  various  forms  of  carelessness,  there 
is  a  class  far  more  common  than  the  uninitiated  would  suppose, 
namely,  incendiary  fires.  In  almost  every  sparsely-settled  re- 
gion of  New  England  there  are  certain  communities  of  run-out 
stock  where  a  few  characters,  often  of  doubtful  parentage,  some- 
times half-witted  and  less  frequently  vicious,  hold  the  surround- 
ing farmers  in  continual  terror.  They  start  forest  fires  either 
from  a  wild  delight  in  seeing  them  burn  or  for  spite,  and,  if  inter- 
fered with,  will  wreak  vengeance  by  next  burning  a  barn  or 
poisoning  a  horse.  The  better  element  in  the  community  is 
usually  too  much  afraid  to  furnish  evidence  that  might  lead  to 
conviction.  Not  until  this  class  is  weeded  out  of  our  hill  towns 
and  a  thrifty,  self-respecting  population  is  substituted,  will  the 
rural  problem  of  New  England  be  on  a  fair  way  to  settlement. 
Here  is  the  common  field  for  forester  and  missionary;  —  for  re- 
munerative work,  which  in  many  of  these  regions  can  be  fur- 
nished only  by  the  forester,  is  a  necessary  accompaniment  of 
better  teaching. 

In  the  West  many  forest  fires  are  undoubtedly  started  by 
lightning,  and  it  is  certain  that  several  were  thus  started  in 
northern  New  England  in  the  summer  of  191 1.  It  is  maintained 
that  fires  are  sometimes  started  by  the  sun's  rays  reflected  from 
broken  bottles  and  unquestionably  they  have  been  set  by  fire 
balloons  and  other  fireworks. 

Fire  Prevention. 

Forest  fires  spread  very  rapidly  if  there  is  any  wind,  with  an 
ever-increasing  front,  so  that  each  hour  wasted  in  attacking 
them  increases  many  times  the  difficulty  and  expense  of  extin- 
guishing. The  most  efficient  method  of  preventing  damage  by 
forest  fire  is,  therefore,  to  provide  some  means  of  attacking 


FOREST  FIRES  139 

them  at  once  before  they  have  time  to  spread.  Watchmen  in 
lookout  stations  or  patrolling  in  dangerous  localities  are  necessary 
in  order  to  give  notice  immediately  on  the  discovery  of  fire.  A 
definite  policy  of  establishing  lookout  stations  on  the  summits  of 
prominent  mountains  has  been  inaugurated  in  Maine,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Massachusetts,  and  New  York  and  will  be  followed  in 
Vermont  and  possibly  Connecticut.  At  each  station  is  a  small 
building  in  which  the  watchman  Hves  during  the  fire  season. 
The  station  is  equipped  with  a  map  of  the  surrounding  country, 
a  pair  of  field  glasses,  and  a  compass,  and  is  connected  by  tele- 
phone with  the  fire  warden.  Upon  discovery  of  a  fire  the  watch- 
man gets  the  compass  bearing  and  the  closest  possible  location 
of  the  fire.  This  is  telephoned  down  to  the  warden  and  a  crew 
is  at  once  sent  to  extinguish  the  fire.  An  idea  of  the  cost  of  such 
a  station  may  be  had  from  a  report  of  the  state  forester  of  New 
Hampshire  concerning  the  Mount  Kearsarge  station.  The  total 
cost  of  this  station  was  as  follows: 

Wire  and  telephone  equipment $96 

Labor  of  installing  same  (including  superintendence) 140 

Eight-  by  twelve-foot  house  (material,  labor,  and  equipment)  70 

Traverse  table  and  field  glasses 33 

$339 

While  a  watchman  located  in  one  of  these  fire  stations  can 
overlook  a  large  area,  50.000  to  200,000  acres  according  to  the 
topography,  in  clear  weather,  the  efficiency  of  such  stations  in 
smoky  weather  is  very  low.  A  system  of  fire  patrols  is,  there- 
fore, much  better  in  very  dry  and  dangerous  seasons,  although 
one  man  can  of  necessity  protect  only  a  small  portion  of  the  area 
that  can  be  overlooked  from  a  fire  station  in  clear  weather. 
There  are  various  methods  of  patrolling  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  country  and  the  kind  of  fire  danger. 

A  very  efficient  method  of  patrolHng  railroads  is  to  follow  every 
train  on  a  hand  car  or  motor.  As  there  is  most  danger  from 
freights  the  patrolman  should  follow  directly  after  these,  if  it  is 
impossible  to  follow  all  trains.     Following  as  closely  as  this  the 


I40 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


patrolman  will  discover  fires  while  they  are  still  so  small  that  he 
can  extinguish  them  alone. 

In  a  well-watered  country  where  there  is  special  danger  from 
campers  and  fishermen,  as  in  northern  Maine,  a  patrol  of  the 
streams  by  boat  or  canoe  is  easiest  and  most  eflicient.  The 
patrolman  takes  the  names  and  addresses  of  all  campers,  and  in 
that  way  not  only  has  good  evidence  in  case  of  subsequent  fires, 
but  warns  parties  so  that  they  are  more  careful. 


Fijr.  51.  —  Fire  station  on   H;ili|  Mountain,  Maine.     A  constant  watcii  for  forest  fires  is 
maintained  during  the  dangerous  season. 

In  many  wooded  sections  well  provided  with  trails  a  patrolman 
on  horseback  can  cover  considerable  country,  and  in  farm  com- 
munities provided  with  roads  he  may  be  mounted  on  a  bicycle. 

In  other  regions  where  trails  are  lacking  it  is  necessary  for  the 
patrolman  to  go  on  foot,  but  in  any  case  the  patrol  must  be  so 
located  as  to  provide  inspection  of  the  places  most  in  danger  of 
fire. 

In  the  so-called  ''Weeks'  Bill,"  which  was  passed  by  the  United 
States  Congress  in  the  spring  of  191 1,  to  provide  for  the  acquisi- 
tion of  national  forests  in  the  East,  provision  was  also  made  for 


FOREST   FIRES  141 

the  expenditure  of  $200,000  in  cooperation  with  the  various 
states  in  the  prevention  of  forest  fires.  Under  this  law  any  state 
which  has  an  organized  system  for  the  prevention  of  forest  fires, 
and  which  has  forests  protecting  the  headwaters  of  navigable 
rivers,  may  call  upon  the  national  government  for  some  of  this 
money.  The  federal  government  is  authorized  to  appropriate 
to  any  state  only  so  much  as  the  state  is  expending  in  similar 
work  in  the  same  fiscal  year.  All  the  New  England  states  with 
the  exception  of  Rhode  Island  are  eligible  for  this  assistance,  and 
are  receiving  sums  ranging  in  191 1  from  $1000  to  $10,000.  This 
federal  money  can  be  spent  solely  for  hiring  men  to  be  employed 
either  in  patrol  or  lookout  duty.  The  wages  paid  are  fixed  in  an 
agreement  between  the  state  and  national  forest  service.  Dur- 
ing wet  weather  when  there  is  no  immediate  danger  of  forest  fires 
these  men  may  be  employed  in  constructing  trails  and  fire  lines 
or  in  any  other  way  that  will  tend  toward  fire  protection. 

Much  can  be  accomplished  toward  preventing  fires  by  improv- 
ing the  condition  of  the  forest.  As  previously  stated,  most  of 
our  worst  fires  occur  or,  at  least,  gain  their  headway  in  cut-over 
coniferous  forests  where  the  ground  is  covered  with  dry,  inflam- 
mable tops.  In  New  York  State  a  law  has  been  enacted  compel- 
ling lumbermen  to  lop  the  branches  from  these  tops  so  that  the 
material  will  at  once  come  in  contact  with  the  ground  and  be 
rotted  out  by  the  snows  of  a  few  winters.  Experience  of  lumber- 
men in  the  Adirondacks  has  demonstrated  that  this  operation 
can  be  done  for  twelve  to  fifteen  cents  per  cord  of  pulpwood  cut. 
It  was  also  found  that  many  tops  after  being  lopped  were  worth 
taking  out;  these  would  otherwise  have  been  left  in  the  woods,  so 
there  was  considerable  saving  to  the  operators.  In  our  large 
lumber  operations,  especially  in  spruce  forests  where  the  tops  are 
very  branching,  some  such  lopping  measure  will  be  the  best  and 
most  practical  preventive.  However,  in  smaller  operations  es- 
pecially in  the  small  pine  wood  lots  of  New  England  the  more 
efficient  measure  can  be  adopted  of  burning  the  branches,  either 
at  the  time  of  lumbering  or  soon  afterwards.  The  cost  of  this 
work  has  been  found  to  vary  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  cents  per 


142  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

thousand  feet  of  lumber  cut  according  to  the  size  of  the  trees. 
Of  course,  in  most  parts  of  New  England  the  wood  cut  from  the 
limbs  has  a  sale  value  sufficient  to  more  than  pay  for  cutting,  and 
in  this  way  close  utilization  may  considerably  reduce  the  cost  of 
brush  burning. 

While  the  conditions  are  such  that  measures  of  this  sort  are 
not  always  feasible,  it  may  readily  be  seen  that  if  this  inflam- 
mable material  is  cleared  from  certain  belts  in  the  forest  it 
would  be  comparatively  easy  to  check  a  fire.  Belts  of  this  kind 
are  called  fire  lines. 

Fire  Lines. 

A  fire  line  or  fire  lane  is  a  strip  kept  free  from  inflammable 
material,  so  that  a  fire  will  either  go  out  of  itself  on  reaching  it, 
or  can  easily  be  extinguished  at  this  line  by  a  crew  of  fire  fighters. 

Fire  lines  may  be  of  various  widths  and  made  in  different  ways, 
according  to  the  forest  and  kinds  of  fire  likely  to  occur.  Investi- 
gation of  the  Vermont  fires  of  1908  showed  that  crown  fires 
occurred  only  in  coniferous  forests,  and  that  practically  all  of 
the  worst  fires  started  in  slash  made  by  lumbermen.  One 
effective  form  of  fire  line  could,  therefore,  be  made  by  burning 
all  the  tops  and  dead-and-down  timber  and  removing  all  conifers 
from  the  strip  in  question. 

Of  course  surface  fires  would  cross  such  a  strip,  if  unprotected, 
upon  the  leaves  and  underbrush.  It  would,  therefore,  be  well 
to  cut  from  a  narrow  strip  all  growth  of  trees  and  brush  and  to 
burn  the  leaves  annually. 

This  can  be  made  still  more  effective  by  grubbing  out  the 
stumps  and  plowing  a  few  furrows. 

As  an  ideal  fire  line  for  mixed  forests,  we  would  suggest  the 
following: 

(a)  A  strip  one  hundred  feet  wide  from  which  all  coniferous 
trees  and  all  underbrush  and  all  dead-and-down  timber  are  re- 
moved to  prevent  crown  fires. 

(b)  One-third  of  this  or  a  strip  thirty-three  feet  wide  to  be 
annually  burned  over  to  prevent  surface  fires. 


FOREST   FIRES 


143 


(c)   A  portion  of  this  or  a  strip  six  to  ten  feet  wide  to  be 
grubbed  out,  and,  if  possible,  plowed  to  prevent  ground  fires. 


Fig.  52.  —  A  completely  cleared  fire  line  in  a  stand  of  mixed  hardwoods  on  ground  too 
rocky  to  plow.  The  line  has  recently  been  cleared  of  leaves  and  occasional  sprouts 
from  the  old  stumps.    This  is  done  twice  a  year. 


The  cost  of  a  fire  line  of  this  kind  would  vary,  according  to  the 
topography,  the  nature  of  the  forest,  and  the  thoroughness  with 
which  it  is  made,  from  $25  to  $100  a  mile.  The  maximum 
expenditure  could  hardly  be  justified  except  in  the  case  of  very 
valuable  forests  in  extremely  exposed  situations,  but  there  are 


144 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


few  forest  areas  that  it  would  not  pay  to  protect  with  some 
such  kind  of  fire  hne. 

On  level,  sandy  soils,  where  fires  run  frequently  and  easily, 
forests  should  be  divided  into  relatively  small  areas  of  from 
three  hundred  to  six  hundred  acres  in  extent  by  fire  Hnes.  All 
extensive  plantations  should  also  be  protected  by  fire  lines. 
These  lines  need  be  only  ten  to  fifteen  feet  wide.     They  should 


,K.  ^v_v  —  A  giuuii.i  Jcaiol  ..ic  line  with  the  larger  trees  left  .-laa.liiiK  on  llie  liuc.      Ii 
shade  checks  the  growth  of  grass  and  herbs  which  is  apt  to  spring  up  on  an  open  line. 


have  all  growth  removed  except  trees  over  four  inches  in  diam- 
eter, breast  high,  and  the  mineral  soil  exposed.  Frequently  this 
can  be  accomplished  by  cutting  out  the  brush  and  small  trees 
and  then  plowing  the  line.  Once  established  in  a  sandy  soil  such 
a  line  can  be  cheaply  maintained  by  an  occasional  harrowing. 
If  plowing  is  impossible  a  clear  line  can  be  secured  by  burning 
over  the  line  or  by  hoeing  and  raking  away  the  litter.  If  burned 
over  great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  fire. 
Narrow  lines  should  be  raked  free  of  litter  on  each  edge  of  the 
fire  line  and  then  the  area  inside  burned  over  on  a  quiet  day. 
Roads  make  the  best  kind  of  a  fire  line  and  can,  in  many  cases, 


FOREST   FIRES 


145 


be  utilized  for  this  purpose.  The  original  cost  of  construction 
will  vary  greatly  with  the  amount  and  character  of  the  growth 
to  be  cleared,  and  whether  the  line  is  plowed,  burned  over,  or 
raked.  Under  the  best  conditions  a  ten-  to  fifteen-foot  Hne  can- 
not be  constructed  for  less  than  $10  per  mile,  while  in  less  favor- 
able places  the  cost  may  easily  run  up  to  $50  or  $75  per  mile. 


By  permission  of  Ihc  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

Fig.  54.  —  Fire  line  cleared  through  a  hardwood  stand.  The  line  has  not  been  properly 
maintained  and  is  covered  with  a  thick  growth  of  weeds.  The  fire  hazard  is  now  greater 
on  the  Hne  than  in  the  forest. 


After  it  is  constructed  the  cost  of  maintenance  should  be  below 
$10  per  mile  per  annum. 

The  location  of  fire  Hnes  is  largely  controlled  by  natural  condi- 
tions. It  is  well  to  take  advantage  of  brook  beds  which  form  a 
barrier  in  themselves  and  where  water  can  be  obtained  for 
fighting  fires;  also  of  roads  and  trails;  and  especially  of  ridge 
tops.  Fires  burn  downhill  very  slowly  and  can,  therefore,  be 
most  easily  checked  at  the  top  of  a  ridge. 


146 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


Roads  and  Trails. 

Roads  and  trails  are  of  great  benefit  in  the  prevention  of  fires, 
not  only  serving  for  fire  lines  but  furnishing  means  of  communica- 
tion between  various  parts  of  a  forest.  A  large  forest  area  with- 
out such  roads  is  very  hard  to  protect,  as  a  long  time  may  be 
wasted  before  men  and  tools  can  reach  the  source  of  danger. 


■^RP 

iff 

n^^ 

^H 

■i 

%1 

P' '•      3h 

Em|»- 

• 

i% 

■HI 

ISk^ 

Jn 

HHI 

wm 

B 

^^ 

■ 

9 

^^M 

m 

By  permission  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 
Fig-  55-  —  Fighting  a  ground  fire  by  trenching  through  the  thick  dufi  to  mineral  soil. 


Extinguishing  Fires. 

We  have  considered  already  the  most  efficient  means  of  so 
improving  the  condition  of  the  forest  that  not  only  fires  will  burn 
with  less  severity  but  that  men  can  gain  access  to  them  more 
easily.  Even  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  a  well- 
organized  fighting  crew  is  also  necessary,  under  the  leadership  of 
someone  who  understands  fire  fighting.     Certain  equipment  can 


FOREST  FIRES 


147 


be  of  great  service  and  should  be  kept  at  vantage  points  in  the 
forest  where  it  is  easily  obtainable  in  case  of  fire. 

The  best  tools  to  be  kept  for  such  purposes  are:  long-handled 
shovels,  rakes,-  axes,  mattocks,  brooms,  pails,  and  spray  pumps. 
Chemical  fire  extinguishers  are  also  of  great  value  for  surface 
fires,  and  it  is  a  much-discussed  question  whether  such  extin- 
guishers or  spray  pumps  are  more  efficient  in  extinguishing  forest 
fires.     The  chemical  extinguishers  employed  for  this  purpose  are 


By  permission  of  the  Connecticut  State  Forester. 

Fig.  56.  —  The  fire  wardens  of  a  Connecticut  town  and  their  fire  fighting  outfit  of  bucket 
pumps.     They  have  been  burning  over  a  fire  line  adjacent  to  the  railroad  track. 


fairly  light,  portable  ones,  weighing  about  thirty-seven  pounds 
when  charged,  and  provided  with  a  short  hose  and  nozzle. 
Various  makes  of  extinguishers  are  on  the  market  but  all  based 
on  the  same  principle.  Briefly,  the  extinguisher  contains  in  the 
top  a  small  bottle  of  sulphuric  acid,  while  beneath  is  a  mixture  of 
water  and  calcium  bicarbonate.  In  working  the  extinguisher 
it  is  inverted  and  the  sulphuric  acid  mixes  with  the  liquid,  result- 
ing in  the  formation  of  carbonic  acid  gas  and  calcium  sulphate. 
The  chemical  reaction  forces  out  through  the  hose  a  mixture  of 
water  and  carbonic  acid  gas,  which,  theoretically,  stops  combus- 


148 


FORESTRY  IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


tion  quicker  than  water  alone.  The  bucket  or  spray  pump  is 
a  small  suction  pump  fitted  with  a  hose  and  nozzle,  and  with  a 
clamp  so  that  the  pump  can  be  securely  fastened  into  a  large 
pail.  The  pail  should  be  covered  with  a  wire  netting  or  cloth 
to  strain  the  water  and  keep  out  sticks  and  dirt.  Both  the 
extinguisher  and  bucket  pump  are  used  in  the  same  way  in 
fighting  a  surface  fire.  The  operator  walks  rapidly  along  the 
fine  of  the  fire  and  deadens  the  blaze;   a  helper,  who  beats 


By  permission  of  the  Connecticut  State  Forester. 

Fig.  57.  —  Fighting  a  surface  fire  with  a  bucliet  pump. 

out  with  a  shovel  the  last  remnants  of  the  fire,  should  come 
behind  him. 

Both  are  extremely  effective  methods  of  extinguishing  surface 
fires,  even  of  such  severity  that  beating  out,  shoveling  on  dirt, 
etc.,  cannot  be  employed  alone. 

Which  is  the  better,  bucket  pump  or  chemical  extinguisher? 
Each  has  its  supporters  and  usually  in  a  locality  where  one  is 
employed  the  other  is  not  used.  Each  has  its  advantages  and 
disadvantages,  which  have  been  placed  in  two  parallel  columns 
for  the  purpose  of  comparison. 


PROPERTY  OF 


FOREST  FIRES 


149 


COMPARATIVE    EFFICIENCY    OF    CHEMICAL    EXTINGUISHER 
AND    SPRAY   PUMP. 


Cost 
Capacity 


Weight  when 
full. 


Length  of  line 
of  fire  put 
out. 


Material 
used. 


Cash  outlay 
for  recharg- 
ing. 

A  ccompany- 
ing  eqiiip- 
ment. 


Bucket  pump. 


Depends  on  size  of  pail. 
Should  use  large  pail  hold- 
ing 3  to  4  gallons. 

A  4-gallon  galvanized  pail, 
with  pump,  containing  3 
gallons  of  water,  weighs 
under  35  pounds. 

50  to  150  feet. 

Skill  of  operator  in  using  only 
a  little  water  in  the  right 
spot  governs  the  length  of 
line  which  can  be  put  out. 


Chemical  extinguishe 


$9 
Between    2\  and  3  gallons. 


Approximately  37  pounds.  It 
is  a  much  harder  article 
to  carry  than  pail  and 
pump. 

50  to  200  feet. 

This  depends  mainly  on  how 
fast  the  operator  walks 
and  his  skill. 


The  severity  of  the  fire  influences  length  of  line  with  both. 
If  very  carefully  handled  and  the  country  is  easy  to  get 
over,  making  rapid  walking  possible,  the  extinguisher 
should  put  out  a  longer  line  of  fire  than  the  bucket  pump. 


Water. 


bi- 


Water,     sulphuric    acid, 
I       carbonate  of  soda. 
Practically  same  amount  of  water  needed  to  recharge  either 

of  the  two. 
Nothing.  10  to  25  cents  per  charge. 


In  order  to  make  either  the  bucket  pump  or  chemical  extin- 
guisher most  eflfective  there  must  be  facilities  for  refilling. 
Several  empty  cans  (big  milk  cans  are  among  the  best) 
or  pails  for  bringing  water  are  necessary.  Besides  this  for 
the  chemical  extinguisher  there  must  be  extra  supplies  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  bicarbonate  of  soda. 


The  statement  is  frequently  made  that  the  chemical  extin- 
guisher is  forty  times  as  effective  as  water  in  extinguishing  fire, 
i.e.,  one  hundred  and  twenty  gallons  of  water  would  be  needed 
to  do  the  work  which  one  charge  (three  gallons)  of  the  chemical 
extinguisher  accompHshes.  Whether  this  is  so  in  the  case  of  a 
fire  in  a  building  in  which  a  great  volume  of  fire  is  concentrated 
in  a  comparatively  small  space,  the  authors  do  not  know,  but 


I50 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


it  is  certain  that  nothing  so  disproportionate  exists  in  the  case 
of  the  ordinary  forest  fire,  which  extends  as  a  narrow  Hne. 
Here  the  extinguisher  is  not  even  twice  as  effective. 

The  lower  cost  (both  the  initial  cost  and  that  of  maintenance) 
and  freedom  from  trouble  in  recharging  with  chemicals  make 
the  bucket  pump  more  desirable  for  general  use  than  the  chemical 


By  permtiiwn  of  the  Maaachu  l 

Fig.  58.  —  Special  forest  fire  wagon;  small  size  for  one  horse. 


extinguisher,  although  the  latter  can  put  out  a  somewhat  longer 
line  of  hre. 

There  are  special  circumstances  under  which  the  chemical  ex- 
tinguisher is  preferable,  as  when  water  is  extremely  scarce,  for  it 
uses  a  Httle  less  water;  or  where  all  parts  of  a  tract  are  accessible 
by  good  roads,  for  then  a  wagon  can  go  along  and  transport  a 
supply  of  extra  chemicals  easily  and  without  danger  of  breakage. 

The  most  intensive  development  of  this  method  of  tire  fighting 
is  found  in  certain  Massachusetts  towns,  located  mainly  through 
the  eastern  part  of  the  state  and  especially  in  the  level,  sandy 
southeastern  section,  where  transportation  by  wagon  is  easy. 
In  these  towns,  special  forest  fire  wagons  are  maintained.  They 
vary  in  style  somewhat  in  different  towns,  but  two  types  built  by 


FOREST  FIRES  151 

the  state  forester  of  Massachusetts  as  special  forest  fire  wagons 
may  be  considered  as  standard.  The  following  quotation  from 
the  Seventh  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Forester  of  Massachu- 
setts briefly  describes  the  two  wagons  and  their  equipment. 

"The  larger  wagon  is  intended  for  two  horses  and  costs,  all  equipped,  about 
$450.  The  equipment  consists  of  fourteen  chemical  extinguishers;  fourteen  gal- 
vanized cans,  each  holding  two  extra  charges  of  water  and  chemicals;  shovels, 
rakes,  mattocks,  and  spare  chemical  charges.  This  equipment  is  carried  in  racks 
and  cases,  not  only  so  that  it  will  ride  safely,  but  also  so  that  it  can  be  conveniently 
carried  into  the  woods.     Eight  men  can  find  accommodation  on  this  wagon. 

"  The  smaller  wagon,  drawn  by  one  horse,  has  all  the  equipment  of  the  larger, 
but  less  in  amount.     It  will  carry  four  men  and  costs,  all  equipped,  about  $300." 


By  permission  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Forester. 

Fig.  59.  —  Special  forest  fire  wagon;  large  size,  for  two  horses. 


Raking  the  leaves  and  Ktter  away  from  the  advancing  flames 
is  another  good  way  of  checking  surface  fires.  This  makes  a 
rough  sort  of  fire  line  where  the  fire  stops  for  lack  of  inflammable 
material. 

Perhaps  the  most  common  method  of  checking  a  fire,  and  the 
most  effective  under  certain  conditions,  is  beating  it  out  with 
brooms  or  evergreen  boughs  or  bran  sacks.  These  sacks  when 
wet  can  be  used  to  good  advantage. 

One  experience  in  fighting  fire  will  suggest  the  best  methods 
for  certain  conditions.  The  chief  thing  to  remember  is  that  a 
fire  is  not  out  when  the  flames  are  stopped.  It  will  often 
smoulder  for  a  long  time  in  some  old  stump  and  finally  blaze 
out  again,  perhaps  after  several  days.     Fire  wardens    should 


152  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

remember  this  and  always  have  someone  to  watch  a  fire  for 
some  time  after  it  is  supposedly  out. 

The  most  effective  time  to  fight  fire  is  in  the  night  when  there 
is  usually  less  wind  and  the  ground  is  damp  with  dew.  A  small 
force  of  men  can  often  accomplish  more  at  this  time  than  a  large 
force  in  the  daytime. 

It  is  easier  to  put  out  a  fire  spreading  downhill  than  in  the 
opposite  direction,  because  hot  air  rises  and  an  ascending  fire  is 
fanned  by  the  draft  which  it  creates. 

Fortunately  crown  fires  are  not  very  common  in  New  England. 
About  the  only  way  to  prevent  a  serious  crown  fire  with  a  strong 
wind  is  by  "back  firing,"  but  this  should  never  be  resorted  to 
except  as  a  last  resort  and  at  points  of  vantage.  To  have  a  back 
fire  effective  it  must  be  started  far  enough  ahead  of  the  main  fire 
to  clear  a  considerable  strip  of  all  inflammable  material  before 
the  main  fire  reaches  it.  This  distance,  therefore,  depends  upon 
the  rate  of  advance  of  the  main  fire.  A  fire  advancing  at  the 
rate  of  a  mile  an  hour  could  probably  be  checked  by  a  back  fire 
set  one-half  mile  ahead;  while  to  check  one  travehng  at  twice 
that  rate  a  greater  distance  would  be  required.  Great  care  must 
be  used  in  starting  a  back  fire  that  this  does  not  escape  with  the 
wind  and  go  tearing  through  the  forest,  increasing  the  damage 
done  by  the  main  fire. 

The  purpose  is  to  burn  back  against  the  wind  toward  the  main 
fire  and  thus  destroy  all  inflammable  material  in  the  track  of 
the  main  fire  and  cause  its  death  through  lack  of  fuel.  A  back 
fire  should  only  be  started  on  the  side  of  a  road,  brook,  ledge,  or 
some  other  obstacle  which  would  help  to  control  it. 

Estimating  the  Damage  Done  by  Forest  Fires. 

In  almost  all  states  persons  who  set  forest  fires  are  responsible 
for  damages,  and  civil  suit  for  such  may  be  brought  against  them. 
From  the  first  part  of  this  chapter  it  will  be  seen  that  fires  seldom 
kill  standing  timber  outright  and  that  the  damage  thereto  is 
often  small  compared  to  that  done  the  younger  growing  stock, 
the  reproduction,  and  the  soil  itself.     Inasmuch  as  this  young 


FOREST   FIRES  1 53 

growth  seldom  has  any  market  value  until  of  lumber,  or  at  least 
of  cordwood  size,  it  has  been  quite  common  to  overlook  these 
more  serious  forms  of  damage  in  appraising  the  results  of  a  fire. 
Neither  is  it  an  easy  matter  to  determine  the  damage  to  young 
growth  and  soil.  The  only  just  method  of  determining  this 
damage  is  to  estimate,  (a)  what  the  forest  would  have  been 
worth  after  a  given  length  of  time  if  not  burned,  and  (b)  what  it 
will  be  worth  in  that  same  time  now  that  it  has  been  burned,  and 
deduct  the  latter  from  the  former.  The  result  is  the  amount  of 
damage  at  the  end  of  this  period  caused  by  the  present  fire.  In 
order  to  determine  the  present  value  of  this  damage  it  is  neces- 
sary to  discount  the  amount  to  the  present  time,  at  the  same 
rate  of  interest  as  the  forest  is  yielding  on  the  capital  invested. 
To  illustrate: 

Suppose  on  a  tract  of  twenty  acres  of  spruce  burned  over  this 
year,  200,000  feet  of  lumber  were  destroyed  worth  $7  per  M. 
The  damage  to  timber  Is  $1400.  If  it  is  estimated  that  the 
young  growth  would  have  produced  200,000  feet  more  in  thirty 
years  without  the  fire  and  will  now  not  produce  over  30,000  feet 
in  that  time;  and  it  is  estimated  that  stumpage  will  be  worth 
$10  per  M.  in  tliirty  years,  the  damage  at  the  end  of  the  period 
would  be  equivalent  to  170,000  feet  at  $10  =  $1700.  From 
tables  of  interest  it  is  found  that  the  present  value  of  $1700 
discounted  at  five  per  cent  for  thirty  years  is  $390.  Therefore 
the  total  present  damage  is  $1400  +  $390  =  $1790.  To  execute 
the  field  work  necessary  for  an  estimate  of  this  sort  of  the 
damages  done  by  fire  the  chapter  on  timber  estimating  must 
be  understood.  As  a  rule  our  New  England  fires  do  not  destroy 
the  trees,  so  it  is  possible  after  a  fire  to  estimate  the  amount  of 
lumber  killed  just  as  live  timber  is  estimated.  To  determine  the 
damage  to  reproduction  is  somewhat  more  difficult,  depending 
on  whether  the  young  seedlings  are  wholly  destroyed  or  simply 
killed.  If  they  are  still  present  it  is  possible  to  estimate  the 
percentage  of  the  area  which  was  stocked.  If  they  have  been 
destroyed  it  will  be  necessary  to  judge  the  former  condition  of 
the  reproduction  by  that  on  similar  adjoining  tracts  which  have 


154  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

not  been  burned  over.  After  ascertaining  the  percentage  of 
the  area  formerly  stocked  it  will  be  possible  by  the  use  of  yield 
tables,  discussed  in  Chapter  X,  to  estimate  what  the  yield  would 
have  been  had  the  land  escaped  fire. 

It  will  be  reaHzed  that  there  are  many  opportunities  for  inac- 
curacies in  determining  damage  in  this  way,  especially  in  our 
American  forests  where  so  little  is  known  as  yet  of  exact  rate 
of  growth  and  the  future  value  of  stumpage.  One  of  the  main 
chances  for  mistake  is  in  selecting  the  rate  of  interest.  In  the 
example  given  it  will  be  seen  that  the  present  value  of  $1700 
discounted  at  4  per  cent  for  30  years  would  be  $525,  or,  at  5 
per  cent,  $295,  making  the  total  damage  respectively  $1925  or 
$1695  instead  of  $1790.  Of  course  where  forests  are  managed 
under  scientific  working  plans,  as  is  the  case  in  many  European 
forests,  and  only  a  portion  of  the  forest  is  removed  equal  to  the 
amount  grown  in  that  time,  a  definite  income  is  derived.  In 
such  a  forest  the  rate  of  interest  corresponds  fairly  well  to  the 
income  divided  by  the  capital.  For  example,  in  a  forest  having 
an  estimated  stand  of  40  cords  per  acre  in  which  there  is  an 
annual  growth  of  one  cord  and  where  wood  is  worth  $1  per  cord, 
the  rate  of  interest  at  which  the  forest  is  growing  would  be  one 
fortieth  =  two  and  one  half  per  cent.  In  this  country  the  rate 
of  interest  used  will  usually  be  not  less  than  that  paid  by  savings 
banks  since  our  forest  management  is  in  such  an  unsettled 
state. 

It  is  only  recently  that  the  destruction  of  reproduction  has 
been  recognized  by  the  courts  as  a  damage  for  which  reimburse- 
ment could  be  claimed.  Hitherto  damages  allowed  by  courts 
have  been  based  entirely  on  the  stumpage  value  of  the  timber 
destroyed.  This,  however,  is  only  a  part  of  the  actual  damage, 
as  the  young  growth  and  productive  capacity  of  the  soil  is  also 
injured.  For  this  reason  a  recent  decision  of  the  United  States 
Circuit  Court  at  Deadwood,  South  Dakota,  is  of  interest. 

''The  government  in  the  summer  of  1910,  won  a  signal  victory 
in  the  case  against  the  receiver  of  the  Missouri  River  and  North- 
western Railroad  Company,  in  which  damages  were  claimed  for 


FOREST  FIRES  1 55 

the  destruction  of  timber  by  sparks  from  the  defendant's  loco- 
motives. The  jury  brought  in  a  verdict  for  the  plaintiff  allowing 
practically  the  full  amount  asked.  The  total  sum  demanded 
was  $3728.85  and  the  verdict  was  for  $3659.45,  a  difference  of 
but  $69.45.  This  item  was  the  alleged  value  of  the  cordwood 
destroyed,  amounting  to  231^  cords  at  30  cents  per  cord.  The 
government  claimed  that  the  wood  before  the  lire  was  worth 
60  cents  per  cord  and  as  it  was  subsequently  sold  for  30  cents 
they  claimed  the  difference,  which  was  not  allowed. 

"The  important  feature  of  the  case  was  the  allowing  of  $12 
per  acre  for  reproduction  and  the  suit  was  unique  in  that  this 
establishes  a  precedent  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  Forest 
Service.  It  is  the  first  time  that  a  court  in  the  United  States  has 
decided  that  trees  of  such  immature  growth  have  a  value  that 
may  be  determined  and  for  which  damage  may  be  estimated 
and  allowed. 

"The  item  of  reproduction  in  this  case  was  $1094.40  or  $12  per 
acre  for  91.2  acres  and  it  was  allowed  by  the  jury  in  full.  The 
other  item  allowed  was  for  the  partial  destruction  of  675,000 
feet  of  mature  timber,  originally  valued  at  $6  per  thousand,  but 
a  credit  of  $2.20  per  thousand  was  allowed  the  defendant  as  the 
fire-killed  timber  was  subsequently  sold  at  that  price.  This 
added  $2565  to  the  reproduction  allowance. 

"The  basis  for  the  valuation  of  the  reproduction  were  the  figures 
derived  from  the  actual  operations  of  this  kind  in  the  Black  Hills 
National  Forest  during  the  past  season,  when  1500  acres  were 
reforested  by  seeding.  Thus  the  forest  officers,  in  their  testi- 
mony, were  able  to  give  exact  figures  for  the  work  already  per- 
formed and  thereby  put  a  definite  value  on  young  trees,  which 
to  practical  lumbermen  would  be  worthless.  "^ 

^  This  quotation  is  taken  from  Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  566. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

TIMBER  ESTIMATING  AND   VALUATION. 

Methods  of  timber  estimating  are  numerous  and  of  varying 
degrees  of  accuracy.  The  method  which  should  be  employed 
depends  very  largely  upon  conditions.  Usually  there  is  not  the 
same  need  of  exactness  in  estimating  timber  on  a  large  tract 
that  there  is  on  a  small  one,  since  the  large  tracts,  as  a  rule,  do 
not  have  a  very  heavy  average  yield  per  acre,  and  they  are  situ- 
ated in  remote  regions  where  the  stumpage  price  is  comparatively 
low.  Some  small  tracts,  on  the  other  hand,  are  worth  from  $ioo 
to  $500  per  acre,  on  account  of  heavy  yield  and  proximity  to  the 
market.  Naturally  one  would  employ  more  exact  methods  of 
estimating  the  stand  on  a  fifty-acre  tract  priced  at  $5000  than 
on  a  ten-thousand-acre  tract  valued  at  $100,000.  As  a  general 
thing  the  more  valuable  the  timber  the  greater  the  need  of  an 
accurate  and  elaborate  estimate. 

Estimating  lumber  is  like  every  other  business;  the  more  ex- 
perience a  man  has  in  it,  the  more  accurately  he  can  estimate 
and  the  simpler  the  methods  he  can  use.  Many  lumbermen,  or, 
more  correctly,  timber  cruisers  can  go  over  a  large  tract  in  a 
casual  way  and  estimate  fairly  well  the  total  amount  of  timber 
upon  it.  They  are  able  to  do  this  because  they  have  had  ex- 
perience in  cutting  off  many  similar  tracts  and  know  the  amount 
of  lumber  taken  from  them.  The  roughest  method  is  simply  to 
compare  in  one's  mind  the  tract  under  consideration  with  those 
with  which  one  has  had  experience.  This  method  is  liable  to 
errors  of  twenty -five  per  cent  even  when  used  by  experienced 
men.  Stumpage  prices  of  timber  have  now  advanced  so  much 
and  competition  is  so  great  that  practically  all  cruisers  now  use 
some  more  accurate  system. 

It  should  be  said  at  the  outset  that  the  land  owner  or  pro- 
156 


TIMBER   ESTIMATING  1 57 

spective  purchaser  can  usually  secure  the  services  of  a  timber 
cruiser,  but  as  the  business  of  estimating  offers  unequaled  op- 
portunity for  dishonesty,  the  employer  should  be  sure  that  the 
estimator  is  working  for  his  interests.  It  must  also  be  borne 
in  mind  that  most  of  these  men  look  at  the  forest  from  the 
lumberman's  rather  than  the  forester's  standpoint,  and  are, 
therefore,  not  inclined  to  place  much  value  on  young  growth  or 
to  appreciate  the  probable  rise  in  prices.  For  these  reasons  they 
are  more  Hkely  to  underestimate  than  overestimate  and  their 
judgment  is  worth  more  to  the  purchaser  than  to  the  seller. 

As  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  point  out  methods  of 
estimating  which  can  be  applied  by  one  of  little  experience, 
rather  than  to  describe  the  cruisers'  methods,  the  latter  will  be 
omitted. 

A.    ESTIMATING  TIMBER   ON   SMALL   WOOD    LOTS. 

The  most  accurate  way  of  estimating  timber  and  one  wholly 
practicable  on  small  wood  lots,  as  areas  of  less  than  one  hundred 
acres,  is  to  measure  the  diameters  of  all  the  trees  and  the  heights 
of  as  many  as  will  estabHsh  an  average.  The  diameters  are 
measured  with  calipers,  always  at  breast  height.  Heights  may 
be  measured  accurately  with  an  instrument  known  as  a  hypsom- 
eter,^  or,  after  a  httle  practice,  may  be  estimated  fairly  accurately. 
This  work  can  be  done  best  by  two  men  crossing  and  recrossing 
the  wood  lot  on  parallel  strips.  To  avoid  mistakes  it  is  well  to 
mark  the  trees  measured  with  a  piece  of  carpenter's  chalk. 

The  most  convenient  form  of  tallying  the  trees  measured  under 
this  system  is  to  use  a  sheet  ruled  horizontally  and  vertically; 
the  vertical  columns  for  the  various  species,  the  horizontal  lines 
for  diameters.  A  dot  is  made  for  each  tree  measured  and  after 
four  dots  are  made  under  the  same  diameter  and  species,  the 
next  trees  are  designated  by  connecting  lines  and  diagonal  lines 
until  ten  trees  are  tallied.  The  following  table  illustrates  this 
method: 

1  There  are  several  kinds  of  hypsometers.  The  one  commonly  used  in  this 
country  is  called  the  Faustman  and  can  be  purchased  from  Keuffel  &  Esser  Co. 
of  New  York. 


iS8 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


Diameter,  breast 
high,  inches. 

Spruce. 

Birch. 

Maple. 

Hemlock. 

Beech. 

Fir. 

A 

»:(5) 
::(4) 
:     (2) 

•     (i) 

:*(3) 

■ta-(ii) 

W    (6) 

n    (8) 

c 

:(2) 

6 

7    • 

U(7) 
•    (i) 

8   . 

9 

lO 

II 

On  the  area  tallied  there  was  one  hemlock  4  inches,  one  maple 
8  inches,  two  spruces  6  inches,  two  birches  5  inches,  three  hem- 
locks 5  inches,  four  spruces  5  inches,  etc. 

After  all  the  trees  on  a  lot  have  been  measured  in  this  way  their 
volumes  can  be  best  ascertained  by  the  use  of  "volume  tables,"  ^ 
if  they  are  available.  Volume  tables  have  now  been  constructed 
for  many  of  our  important  species.  They  are  based  on  the 
measurements  taken  in  lumber  jobs  of  several  hundred  felled 
trees  and  give  the  average  volume,  either  in  board  feet  or  some 
other  unit,  for  trees  of  different  diameters  and  heights.  With 
such  tables  the  total  volume  of  each  species  on  the  lot  is  obtained 
separately,  a  table  being  constructed  similar  to  the  one  below. 

In  the  application  of  volume  tables  it  will  be  seen  that  some 
give  cubic  feet  instead  of  fractions  of  a  cord  or  board  feet.  The 
number  of  cords  can  be  secured  by  dividing  the  number  of 
cubic  feet  by  90  on  the  principle  that  a  cord  of  wood  (128-stacked 
cubic  feet)  contains  70  per  cent  sohd  wood,  which  amounts  vir- 
tually to  90  cubic  feet.  Board  feet  can  be  converted  to  cords 
by  allowing  500  board  feet  as  the  equivalent  of  a  cord.  This 
varies  from  400  feet  for  small  logs  to  600  feet  for  large  ones;  but 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  rule  will  not  always  work  back- 
wards, for  a  cord  of  wood  may  be  composed  of  sticks  too  small 
to  be  sawed. 

^  A  number  of  such  tables  are  included  in  the  Appendix. 


TIMBER    ESTIMATING 


159 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  APPLICATION  OF  A  VOLUME  TABLE 
TO  SECURE  THE  STAND  OF  SPRUCE  ON  A  WOOD  LOT. 


Diameter,  breast 

Number  of  trees. 

Total  volume,  board 

high,  inches. 

feet,  from  volume  table. 

feet. 

S 

500 

6 

3,000 

6 

420 

12 

5 -040 

7 

430 

18 

7-740 

8 

300 

38 

11,400 

9 

170 

61 

10,370 

10 

200 

78 

15,600 

II 

220 

96 

21,120 

12 

140 

no 

15,400 

Total 

2,380 

89,670 

Volumes  taken  from  volume  table  by  T.  S.  Woolsey,  Jr.,  made  in  Grafton,  N.  H. 


In  the  case  of  trees  for  which  no  volume  tables  have  been  con- 
structed a  table  should  be  made.  A  rough  table  that  will  be 
fairly  accurate  for  any  wood  lot  can  be  made  by  cutting  on  the 
tract  a  number  of  trees  of  different  diameters  of  the  species  in 
question,  only  taking  care  that  a  good  range  of  diameters  from 
the  smallest  to  the  largest  is  included.  After  these  sample  trees 
are  felled  they  are  measured  into  log  lengths,  and  the  logs  of 
each  tree  scaled  by  the  log  rule  in  general  use  in  the  community. 
A  log  rule  is  a  table,  generally  laid  out  on  a  measuring  stick,  which 
gives  the  number  of  feet,  board  measure,  in  logs  of  different 
diameters  and  lengths.  A  number  of  such  log  rules  ^  are  in  use 
in  different  parts  of  the  country.  The  most  common  rules  -  used 
in  New  England  are  the  Doyle,  the  Scribner,  the  Bangor  or 
Maine,  the  Blodgett,  and  the  Vermont.  After  scaling  the  logs 
of  a  tree  their  volumes  are  added  to  give  the  volume  of  the  whole 
tree.  The  volumes  of  the  various  felled  sample  trees  are  then 
plotted  on  cross-section  paper,  and  a  curve  is  drawn  designating 
the  average,  as  shown  below.  Of  the  five  trees  measured  in  this 
case,  the  7-inch  tree  contained  30  board  feet;  one  of  the  9-inch 
trees  40,  and  the  other  60  board  feet,  etc. 

^  See  Woodman's  Handbook,  Bulletin  36,  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 
2  Copies  of  these  rules  are  given  in  the  Appendix. 


i6o 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


From  this  curve  it  is  possible  to  make  the  rough  volume  table 
(called  a  "local"  volume  table)  as  follows: 


LOCAL   VOLUME   TABLE. 


Diameter, 
breast  high. 

Vol 

jme,  board 
feet. 

inches. 

6 

15 

7 

30 

8 

35 

9 

50 

lO 

65 
85 

12 

120 

With  such  a  volume  table  the  total  contents  of  the  trees  on 
the  wood  lot  of  this  species  are  obtained  as  already  explained. 

Still  another  method  of  obtaining  the  volume  of  the  stand 
without  the  use  of  any  volume  table  is  based  on  estimating, 
at  the  same  time  with  the  breast  high  diameters,  the  top  diam- 
eter of  every  16-foot  log.  To  do  this  accurately  requires  some 
practice  in  judging  16-foot  lengths  and  diameters  at  different 
distances.  As  a  result  of  this  method  the  note  keeper  has  not 
only  the  diameter  of  each  tree  but  also  the  estimated  top  diam- 
eter of  each  log.  The  volumes  of  logs  of  different  diameters  are 
given  by  the  log  rules,  and  the  total  amount  of  lumber  for  the 
tract  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  volume  of  the  log  of  each 
diameter  by  the  number  of  logs  of  that  diameter,  and  adding  all 
together.  The  following  table  illustrates  the  final  result  by  this 
method. 


Top  diameter  of 

16-foot  logs, 

inches. 

Number  of 
logs. 

Volume  per 

log. 
board  feet. 

Total  volume, 
board  feet. 

8 

9 
10 

50 
62 

70 

60 

1,600 
2,232 
4,200 

TIMBER   ESTIMATING  l6l 

B.    ESTIMATING   TIMBER   ON   LARGE   WOOD   LOTS. 

On  large  wood  lots,  as  those  over  one  hundred  acres  in  extent, 
very  hkely  it  would  be  impracticable  to  measure  all  the  trees. 
A  system  somewhat  less  accurate  can  be  apphed  in  such  cases 
depending  upon  two  operations  carried  on  together,  as  follows: 

1.  Count  all  the  trees  on  the  lot. 

2.  Measure  all  the  trees  on  certain  plots. 

Two  men  by  walking  through  a  forest  on  a  compass  course  can 
very  rapidly  count  the  trees  on  a  strip  four  rods  wide.  Those  on 
the  outside  should  be  marked  so  as  to  avoid  confusion  when 
returning  on  the  parallel  strip.  At  regular  distances,  as  every 
two  hundred  paces,  a  plot  is  laid  off  and  all  the  trees  on  this  plot 
measured  as  described  under  A .  Circular  plots  are  conveniently 
laid  off  by  pacing  from  the  center  the  distance  of  the  required 
radius  in  different  directions.  A  circle  with  a  radius  of  59  feet 
contains  a  quarter  acre;  with  a  radius  of  85  feet,  a  half  acre. 
After  all  the  trees  on  the  wood  lot  have  been  counted  in  this  way, 
and  the  trees  on  several  sample  plots  have  been  measured,  the 
volumes  of  the  various  sample  plots  are  worked  up  by  one  of  the 
methods  described  under  .4.  The  total  volume  of  the  lot  is 
obtained  by  ratio: 

X  :V :  :N :n 

in  which 

A'  =  total  volume  of  the  wood  lot. 
V  =  volume  of  the  sample  plots. 
N  =  total  number  of  trees  on  the  wood  lot. 
n  =  number  of  trees  on  the  sample  plots. 

C.     ESTLMATING    TIMBER    ON    LARGE    FOREST    TRACTS. 

The  methods  described  above  rely  upon  a  census  of  the  total 
number  of  trees  on  the  wood  lot.  In  the  case  of  large  timber 
tracts  such  an  enumeration  is  impossible,  and  some  method  must 
be  employed  based  on  an  accurate  estimate  of  certain  parts  of  the 
tract  and  a  knowledge  of  what  proportion  these  areas  form  of  the 


l62  FORESTRY   IN  NEW   ENGLAND 

whole.  In  order  to  determine  this  proportion  a  map  is  necessary, 
from  which  the  total  area  of  each  portion  or  type  can  be  obtained. 
For  example,  a  io,ooo-acre  tract  in  northern  New  England  might 
be  found  to  comprise  2000  acres  of  second-growth  pine,  1000 
acres  abandoned  pastures,  4000  acres  mixed  birch,  beech,  and 
maple,  and  3000  acres  second-growth  spruce.  A  knowledge  of 
the  area  of  each  of  these  types  is  necessary.  There  might  also 
be  subdivisions  according  to  age,  which  would  have  to  be  esti- 
mated separately.  Thus  in  the  second-growth  spruce  and  pine 
t3qDes,  certain  blocks  might  occur  containing  timber  twenty  to 
fifty  years  old,  while  the  remainder  was  less  than  twenty  years 
of  age.  The  only  accurate  way  to  determine  these  areas  is  to 
map  them,  and  consequently  a  map  must  be  secured  by  the 
estimator.^  In  an  open  country,  undoubtedly,  it  is  better  to 
map  the  area  first  with  a  plane  table  and  do  the  estimating 
separately,  but  there  can  be  no  question  that  for  those  sections 
of  New  England  where  large  forests  occur,  the  so-called  "strip 
system,"  or  "valuation  survey,"  devised  by  the  United  States 
Forest  Service,  is  unsurpassed.  By  this  method  the  data  for 
making  the  map  are  secured  at  the  same  time  that  measurements 
of  the  timber  are  being  taken.  To  carry  out  this  method  a  crew 
of  four  men  is  best,  although  it  can  be  done  with  a  gmaller  or  a 
larger  number.  The  necessary  equipment  is  a  surveyor's  chain, 
a  hand  compass  (for  more  accurate  work  a  staff  compass),  two 
pairs  of  calipers,  a  tally  board,  some  record  sheets  or  a  notebook, 
and  a  pencil.  A  hypsometer  is  a  valuable  addition  as  will  be 
explained  later.  The  crew  may  be  arranged  in  various  ways. 
The  main  object  is  to  run  a  straight  compass  course  through  the 
forest  and  this  is  done  by  the  head  man.  The  other  two  men 
carry  the  calipers  and  measure  the  diameters  of  all  trees  for  a 
distance  of  one-half  chain  length,  two  rods  on  either  side.  At 
first  this  distance  should  be  checked  frequently,  by  carrying  the 
chain  out  to  the  side  or  by  pacing;  but  with  practice  the  men  soon 
are  able  to  judge  very  closely,  and  the  few  inaccuracies  balance 

^  For  methods  of  mapping  forests,  see  "A  Manual  for  Northern  Woodmen,"  by 
Austin  Gary,  published  by  Harvard  University,  Gambridge,  1909. 


TIMBER   ESTIMATING 


163 


themselves.     The  trees  on  this  strip,  66  feet  long  and  66  feet 
wide,  are  calipered  and  tallied  as  described  under  A . 

This  square  of  66  feet  each  way  is  one-tenth  of  an  acre.  When 
all  the  trees  on  this  area  have  been  measured  the  crew  moves  on 
another  chain  length  in  the  fixed  compass  direction.  The  chains 
are  tallied  after  moving  forward.  Ten  chains  complete  the  acre, 
which  is  all  that  is  talHed  on  one  sheet.     A  description  of  the 


By  permission  of  the  Connecticut  State  Forester. 

Fig.  60.  —  A  portable  sawmill  of  small  capacity,  such  as  is  commonly  used  in  southern 
New  England. 


forest  is  written  on  the  back  of  the  sheet  with  special  reference 
to  the  type,  so  that  all  acres  measured  in  a  certain  type  can  be 
averaged  together.  If  there  is  a  marked  change  in  type  in  the 
course  of  an  acre,  it  is  better  to  start  a  new  sheet,  the  tally  of 
chains  showing  that  this  sheet  represents  .6  or  .8  of  an  acre,  etc., 
as  the  case  may  be.  A  continuous  strip  of  eight  acres  covers  a 
mile  of  distance:  66 X 10X8  =  5280  feet.  The  tract  is  gridironed 
with  these  strips.     The  distance  apart  of  the  lines  depends  upon 


1 64  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

the  intended  accuracy  of  the  estimate.  Lines  run  one  mile 
apart  give  a  measurement  of  one  and  one-quarter  per  cent  of 
the  entire  area;  one-half  mile  apart  two  and  five-tenths  per 
cent;  one-quarter  mile  apart  five  per  cent;  one-eighth  mile  ten 
per  cent,  etc.  However,  in  practice,  the  lines  are  rarely  run 
nearer  than  one-quarter  mile,  and  usually  two  and  five-tenths 
per  cent  of  the  area  is  considered  sufficient.  By  making  note 
of  changes  of  type,  topography,  streams,  etc.,  it  is  possible  to 
make  a  fairly  accurate  map  of  the  tract.  The  areas  of  the 
different  types  can  be  determined  from  this  map.  Along  with 
the  survey  the  crew  should  take  the  height  measurements  of  a 
few  hundred  trees  of  the  most  important  species,  to  obtain  the 
average  height  for  each  diameter  class. 

When  all  the  required  valuation  surveys  have  been  secured 
there  remains  a  large  amount  of  work  to  be  done.  In  the  first 
place,  the  tally  sheets  are  assorted  according  to  the  type  of  land 
they  represent.  Of  the  500  acres  measured  in  the  10,000-acre 
tract,  suppose  100  fall  into  the  second-growth  pine  type,  150 
into  mixed  hardwoods,  200  into  second-growth  spruce,  and  50 
into  abandoned  pasture.  The  sheets  representing  each  of  these 
types  are  averaged  together,  giving  an  average  acre  for  each  type. 
This  shows  the  average  number  of  trees  of  each  diameter  and 
species  for  the  type,  and  the  contents  can  be  obtained  from 
volume  tables  as  discussed  under  A .  The  total  volume  of  each 
species  is  then  multiplied  by  the  number  of  acres  in  the  whole 
type,  giving  a  total  for  the  type. 

The  valuation  survey  method  of  estimating,  described  above, 
undoubtedly  surpasses,  for  accuracy  and  cheapness,  any  other 
method  and  admits  of  considerable  variation  in  detail.  There 
are  now  forestry  companies  whose  main  business  is  to  estimate 
timber,  and,  as  far  as  known,  they  all  use  some  modification  of 
this  system. 

Another  method  appHcable  for  large  tracts,  by  which  the  data 
for  a  map  are  secured  along  with  the  estimate,  is  a  combination 
of  the  strip  system  and  the  circular  plot  method  outlined  under 
B.     The  chief  advantage  of  this  method  is  that  it  can  be  done 


TIMBER    ESTIMATING 


165 


by  one  man.  In  principle  it  does  not  differ  from  the  method 
just  described.  The  estimator  secures  his  distances  by  pacing, 
guiding  his  course  by  a  pocket  compass.  Instead  of  measuring 
the  timber  in  a  continuous  strip  he  takes  measurements  only  at 
certain  points,  as  at  the  end  of  every  quarter  mile.  At  these 
points  circular  plots  are  laid  off  as  described  under  B.  In  open 
forest  and  with  mature  timber  it  soon  becomes  possible  to  locate 
the  boundaries  of  the  plot  by  the  eye.     The  trees  are  either 


Fig.  61.  —  Estimating  timber  by  use  of  the  strip  method. 


calipered  and  the  volume  of  the  types  ascertained,  as  in  the  val- 
uation survey  method,  or  after  sufhcient  practice  the  volume  of 
each  tree  can  be  estimated  and  tallied.  After  the  volumes  of 
all  the  sample  plots  in  a  type  have  been  found,  the  average  volume 
per  acre  is  obtained  and  this  is  multiplied  by  the  number  of  acres 
in  the  type,  as  secured  from  the  map. 

The  Money  Value  of  Standing  Timber. 

After  the  amount  of  standing  timber  or  wood  on  a  given  tract 
has  been  estimated,  the  final  object  usually  is  to  determine  its 
money  value. 


1 66  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

Timber  is  bought  and  sold  under  so  many  different  conditions 
that  when  a  price  is  mentioned  it  is  always  necessary  to  define 
the  conditions  under  which  the  price  apphes.  Timber  standing 
is  spoken  of  as  stumpage,  and  the  price  paid  for  trees  standing  is 
called  stumpage  price,  which  is  expressed  generally  as  so  much 
per  thousand  board  feet,  cord,  or  other  unit.  It  is  customary  in 
European  practice,  and  in  some  cases  in  this  country,  to  sell  logs 
in  the  woods  when  piled  alongside  the  logging  road.  In  America 
this  is  spoken  of  as  being  on  the  skidway.  Again,  the  transac- 
tion may  be  of  logs  delivered  at  the  mill,  or  loaded  on  a  car,  or 
skidded  on  the  bank  of  a  river. 

Naturally  the  price  of  stumpage  is  lowest,  that  paid  for  logs 
delivered  at  the  mill  is  highest;  other  prices  range  between  the 
two.  The  value  of  timber  may  also  be  figured  at  its  price  when 
manufactured  and  placed  on  the  market.  This,  of  course,  is  the 
highest  of  all,  but  is  the  easiest  to  arrive  at  and  should  serve  as 
the  basis  from  which  the  value  of  the  standing  timber  can  be 
computed  as  described  below. 

The  market  value  of  manufactured  lumber  fluctuates  consid- 
erably with  national  supply  and  demand.  In  years  of  business 
depression,  like  1908,  when  there  is  less  building,  prices  decHne. 
As  a  general  tendency,  however,  the  prices  of  lumber  are  rising. 
Prices  paid  for  lumber,  wood,  and  other  forest  products,  as  for 
everything  else,  vary  according  to  local  conditions,  and  the  first 
step  in  valuation  of  timber  is  to  ascertain  the  prices  that  can 
be  secured  either  for  the  manufactured  article  or  for  the  logs 
delivered  at  the  mill.  For  example,  the  following  prices  per 
thousand  board  feet  are  average  prices  for  logs  delivered  at 
the  mill  in  northern  Vermont.  Birch,  beech,  and  maple,  $9 
per  thousand  board  feet;  hemlock,  $9.50;  ash,  spruce,  and 
fir,  $10.50;  white  pine,  $11;  but  in  any  given  case  the  actual 
prices  may  be  considerably  above  or  below  these.  Hence  in- 
quiry is  necessary  whenever  an  estimate  of  the  value  of  stand- 
ing timber  is  to  be  made.  Where  there  are  special  industries 
requiring  a  large  amount  of  any  special  timber,  the  prices  paid 
for   that  species    are   higher.       As  we  have   stated,   a    timber 


TIMBER   ESTIMATING 


167 


owner  having  had  his  logs  sawed  may  sell  the  manufactured 
lumber.  In  order  to  show  the  average  relation  between  prices 
paid  for  logs  at  the  mill  and  prices  paid  for  rough  lumber, 
loaded  on  the  car  at  the  mill,  the  following  prices  of  rough, 
manufactured  lumber  are  given,  to  compare  with  those  above: 
Spruce,  $16  to  $18;  second-growth  pine,  $20  to  $22;  fir,  $16  to 
$18;  basswood,  $16  to  $18;  birch  and  maple,  $13  to  $15;  ash. 


Fig.  62.  —  A  selected  lot  of  the  best  grade  spruce  logs  for  manufacture  into  clapboards. 


$16  to  $18;  hemlock,  $16;  oak,  $20  to  $25.  Sawmill  owners 
in  the  above  section  usually  charge  from  $2.50  to  $3  per 
thousand  feet,  board  measure,  for  sawing  softwood  lumber  and 
from  $3  to  $4  for  hardwoods.  These  figures  indicate  the  pos- 
sible profit  of  selling  manufactured  lumber  over  logs,  but  the 
owners  should  reahze  that  it  is  often  difiicult  for  them  to  find  a 
ready  market,  while  the  millmen  are  in  constant  communication 
with  dealers. 

Lumbering  is  a  form  of  business  in  which  there  are  many 
chances  of  loss  and  in  which  experience  and  the  judgment  ac- 


l68  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

quired  thereby  are  of  great  value.  Without  these  there  is  a 
large  chance  of  failure.  The  inexperienced  man  may  well  prefer 
to  pay  a  lumberman  a  commission  on  an  operation,  which  he 
practically  does  when  he  sells  the  stumpage,  instead  of  acting 
as  his  own  lumberman.  In  determining  the  value  of  stumpage 
it  is  necessary  to  make  a  distinction  between  the  price  which  the 
owner  could  get  for  it  if  he  sold  to  a  lumberman  or  jobber,  and 
what  he  could  reahze  if  he  acted  as  his  own  jobber.  If  successful 
in  the  latter  capacity  he  would  have  the  additional  profit  which 
the  lumberman  would  expect  to  make  by  the  operation. 

In  most  communities  there  are  men  who  make  a  business  in 
winter  of  hauling  logs  and  wood.  They  will  take  a  contract  to 
haul  the  given  distance  at  a  certain  price  per  thousand  feet  or 
per  cord.  The  prices  charged  are  usually  based  on  a  fair  day's 
wage  for  men  and  teams,  and  this,  of  course,  varies  in  different 
sections.  The  margin  for  profit  is  so  small  that  unless  the  land- 
owner has  plenty  of  men  and  teams  this  contract  method  will  be 
cheaper  for  him.  For  a  six-mile  haul  in  northern  Vermont  the 
price  is  usually  about  $3  per  thousand,  or  from  $1.50  to  $2.00  a 
cord.  For  short  hauls,  where  two  trips  a  day  can  be  made,  the 
cost  will  be  about  half  these  figures.  By  deducting  the  cost  of 
haul  from  the  price  to  be  received  at  the  mill,  the  value  of  the 
felled  timber  is  obtained.  If  it  is  to  be  transported  by  railroad 
or  river,  the  further  charges  for  such  freightage  must  be  added. 
In  southern  New  England  most  of  the  lumbering  is  done  with 
portable  sawmills.  In  this  case  the  price  paid  for  logs  at  the  mill 
is  less  because  the  manufactured  lumber  has  to  be  transported 
to  the  railway  or  market. 

To  obtain  the  value  of  standing  timber,  a  further  deduction  for 
the  cost  of  cutting  and  logging  is  necessary.  It  usually  costs 
about  $1.25  per  thousand  board  feet  for  cutting  the  trees. 
Logging  ^  in  the  north  woods,  where  the  logs  are  piled  on  skids 
near  the  cutting,  is  cheap  —  usually  not  over  Si. 50  per  M-  — 

1  Logging  as  here  used  refers  to  the  operation  of  removing  the  log  from  the 
place  where  the  tree  grew  to  the  skidway  or  portable  mill;  it  does  not  include 
cutting  or  hauHng  from  the  skidway  to  the  permanent  mill  or  railroad. 

2  M  stands  for  thousand  feet,  board  measure. 


TIMBER    ESTIMATING  169 

but  logging  to  the  portable  mill  averages  about  $2  per  M. 
Cutting  cordwood  costs  from  90  cents  to  $1.25  per  cord. 

As  said  before,  when  the  cost  of  cutting,  logging,  and  hauling 
has  been  deducted  from  the  price  to  be  received  for  the  logs,  the 
stumpage  value  is  secured,  which  is  the  value  to  the  owner  acting 
as  his  own  jobber.  A  lumberman  would  not  pay  so  much  as 
this,  as  he  must  necessarily  make  his  own  profit  also,  which  may 
be  considered  as  a  commission  paid  the  lumberman  by  the  owner. 

The  commission  paid  to  a  lumberman  when  stumpage  is  sold 
him  varies  considerably,  but  averages  about  one-half  the  net 
value  of  the  standing  timber.  For  example,  if  logs  are  worth 
$12  a  thousand  feet  at  the  mill  and  it  costs  $6  to  get  them  to 
the  mill,  they  will  be  worth  to  the  owner  about  $6,  if  he  is  a  suc- 
cessful lumberman.  If  he  sells  the  stumpage,  however,  he  will 
rarely  receive  over  $3  per  thousand.  In  other  words,  he  pays  a 
commission  of  $3  to  the  lumberman. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  prices  and  costs  for  an  average 
lumber  operation,  when  the  price  of  logs  at  the  mill  is  $12  and 
for  sawed  lumber  delivered  is  $20  per  M. 

Per  M.         Per  M. 

Stumpage  price $3 .  00 

Lumberman's  profit 3 . 00 

Cost  of  cutting,  skidding,  and  hauling. .  .  .  O.oo 

Cost  of  logs  at  the  mill $12.00 

Cost  of  sawing 3  .  00 

Cost  of  transporting 2  .00 

Millman's  profit 3 . 00 

8.00 

Sawed  lumber  delivered $20.00 

In  the  future  this  method  will  largely  give  way  to  that  of  sell- 
ing at  a  definite  rate  per  thousand  feet,  board  measure  (or  other 
unit),  based  on  the  actual  cut  at  the  mill. 

When  the  stumpage  value  per  thousand  feet  and  per  cord  has 
been  ascertained,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  determine  the  value  of 
the  standing  timber  on  a  lot  by  simply  multiplying  by  the  amount 
obtained  in  the  estimate. 

In  many  cases  when  lumbermen  make  an  offer  for  the  stump- 


lyo  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

age  the  computations  above  referred  to  will  be  useful  to  ascertain 
whether  ojOfers  are  satisfactory  or  not.  The  experienced  lumber- 
man does  not  make  these  detailed  computations  but  knows  from 
past  experience  about  what  he  can  give  for  stumpage  to  make  a 
fair  profit. 

Most  timber  in  the  past  has  been  sold  by  the  lot  and  not  by 
stumpage  price,  but  even  in  this  case  both  the  purchaser  and  the 
seller  have  their  estimates  of  the  amount  of  lumber  on  the  lot, 
and  regulate  their  prices  accordingly. 


CHAPTER  X. 

GROWTH   OF   TREES   AND   FORESTS. 

The  study  of  the  growth  of  trees  and  forests  is,  perhaps,  the 
most  difficult  one  in  forestry  and  it  is  not  proposed  to  attempt 
any  complete  presentation  of  the  subject  here.  Several  tech- 
nical works, ^  in  English  and  in  other  languages,  can  be  con- 
sulted for  detailed  information.  The  purpose  of  this  chapter 
is  rather  to  indicate  the  various  kinds  of  growth  and  the  general 
methods  of  study.  For  convenience  the  chapter  is  divided  into 
two  sections:  A.  Growth  of  trees;  B.  Growth  of  stands.  A 
knowledge  of  the  latter  must  rest  upon  a  knowledge  of  the 
former. 

For  scientific  purposes  foresters  speak  of  increase  in  volume 
of  a  tree  or  stand  as  "increment";  and  the  increase  in  diam- 
eter, sectional  area,  or  height,  as  "accretion";  but  ordinarily 
"growth"  is  used  to  cover  both  terms.  The  growth  of  a  tree 
or  stand  may  be  the  growth  of  a  specific  year,  when  it  is  called 
"current  annual  growth";  or  of  a  specified  period  of  years, 
called  "periodic  growth."  By  dividing  the  total  volume  by 
the  age  the  "mean  annual  growth"  is  obtained. 

A.     GROWTH    OF    TREES. 

There  are  many  incentives  for  the  study  of  tree  growth,  the 
chief  being  to  establish  a  basis  for  forest-growth  studies.  For 
the  forester  to  have  a  knowledge  of  the  relative  rates  of  growth 
of  the  more  important  species  with  which  he  deals  is  not  only 
interesting,  but  very  necessary.  It  is  also  advisable  to  know 
something  of  the  relative  growth  of  the  same  species  under 
different  conditions.     Height  growth  is  the  best  indication  of 

^  The  most  important  .\merican  book  dealing  with  this  subject  is,  "Forest 
Mensuration,"  by  Graves.     Wiley  &  Sons. 

171 


172  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

the  quality  of  the  soil  for  any  species,  and  consequently  a  table 
showing  the  average  height  of  trees  of  different  diameters  and 
on  different  sites  furnishes  a  ready  means  of  determining  the 
relative  value  of  the  sites  for  the  species  in  question.  In  fact 
the  three  quality  sites  commonly  recognized  are  usually  deter- 
mined by  a  classification  of  heights. 

I.   Age  of  Trees. 

The  age  of  a  second-growth  pine  tree  and  of  some  other 
species  up  to  fifty  or  sixty  years  can  be  obtained  with  fair  accu- 
racy by  counting  the  whorls  of  branches,  since  the  pine  makes  but 
one  whorl  each  year.  The  buds  of  winter  develop  in  the  spring 
into  branches  and  leader.  Height  growth  is  made  entirely 
at  the  top.  One  can  only  approximate  the  age  of  most  trees 
without  cutting  and  counting  the  rings  on  the  stump.  Every 
fall,  in  our  climate,  the  growth  ceases  and  the  tree  remains  at 
rest  until  spring.  When  activity  in  the  cambium  (the  tissue 
just  inside  the  bark)  recommences,  large  wood  cells  are  made 
with  comparatively  thin  walls.  Throughout  the  growing  season 
new  layers  of  cells  are  formed,  but  as  the  season  advances  these 
cells  become  smaller  and  their  walls  relatively  thicker.  On 
account  of  this  difference  in  structure  the  wood  formed  in 
spring  and  early  summer  is  lighter  colored  than  that  formed  at 
the  end  of  the  season.  A  sharp,  well-defined  line  in  most 
species  separates  the  dark  growth  of  the  fall  from  the  light 
growth  of  the  next  spring,  and  the  belt  between  these  dark 
hues  is  called  the  annual  ring.  In  the  tropics  where  there  are 
no  well-defined  seasons,  no  distinct  rings  occur,  and  the  age 
of  trees  cannot  be  ascertained  in  this  way.  The  distinctness  of 
the  rings  in  trees  varies  with  the  texture  of  the  wood.  In 
such  woods  as  the  spruce,  pine,  oak,  ash  and  chestnut  the 
rings  are  easily  distinguishable,  although  slow  growth  in  some 
cases  may  require  the  use  of  a  magnifying  glass.  With  such 
fine-grained  trees  as  beech,  birch  and  maple,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  often  very  difficult  to  distinguish  the  rings.  In  obtaining 
the  age  of  a  tree  by  counting  the  rings  on  the  stump  it  must  be 


GROWTH   OF  TREES   AND   FORESTS 


173 


remembered  that  seedlings  grow  very  slowly  at  first,  especially 
under  shade,  and  that  a  number  of  years  may  have  been  required 
for  the  seedling  to  reach  the  height  of  the  stump.  For  this 
reason  stumps  to  be  analyzed  should  be  cut  as  low  as  possible. 


By  permission  of  S.  J .  Record. 
Pig  53_  _  Cross  section  of  a  conifer  (hemlock)  highly  magnified  showing  the  annual  rings 
of  growth.    /I  to  £  is  one  season's  growth. 

The  average  period  required  by  different  species  to  reach  stump 
height  can  be  ascertained  by  studying  the  ages  of  a  few  seed- 
lings of  the  desired  height.  The  average  age  thus  obtained 
should  be  added  to  the  age  of  the  tree  as  found  on  the  stump. 
Thus,  if  there  are  one  hundred  and  sixty  rings  on  a  hemlock 
stump,  two  feet  high,  and  a  study  has  shown  that  it  requires 


174 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


fifteen  years  for  hemlock  under  similar  conditions  to  reach  the 
height  of  two  feet,  then  the  total  age  of  the  tree  will  be  esti- 
mated to  be  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  years. 


By  permission  of  S.  J.  Record. 
Fig.  64.  —  Cross  section  of  a  hardwood  (black  ash)  highly  magnified  showing  the  annual 
rings  of  growth.    A  to  B  is  one  season's  growth. 


2.  Diameter  Growth. 

For  scientific  purposes  diameter  growth  should  always  be  studied 
at  a  cross  section  taken  at  breast  height,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact 
it  is  usually  studied  on  the  stumps  of  trees  cut  for  lumbering. 
As  the  growth  near  the  swelHng  of  the  roots  is  slightly  greater 
than  that  higher  up,  the  results  are  not  entirely  accurate.     The 


GROWTH  OF  TREES  AND  FORESTS 


175 


rings  should  be  counted  and  the  growth  measured  on  the  aver- 
age radius,  in  order  to  secure  the  average  growth  on  all  sides. 
The  results  of  a  study  of  this  kind  may  be  expressed  in  various 
ways  as,  for  example:  the  average  diameter  of  trees  of  different 
ages;  the  average  age  of  trees  of  different  diameters;  the  number 
of  rings  in  the  last  inch  of  radius  for  trees  of  different  diameters; 
the  number  of  years  required  for  each  diameter  inch  class  to 
increase  one  inch.  Frequently  confusion  arises  among  amateurs 
between  the  first  and  the  second  of  these  expressions.  They 
are  apt  to  infer  because  the  average  diameter  of  a  species  fifty 
years  old  is  fifteen  inches  that  conversely  the  average  age  of  trees 
of  that  species  fifteen  inches  in  diameter  is  fifty  years.  It  is  im- 
possible to  use  the  tables  in  this  way,  since  one  is  made  by  aver- 
aging all  trees  that  are  fifteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  other  is 
made  by  averaging  a  different  set  of  trees  that  happen  to  be  fifty 
years  old.  Among  these,  many  that  have  been  suppressed  may 
be  only  eight  or  ten  inches  in  diameter,  and  others  that  have 
grown  rapidly  may  be  correspondingly  larger. 

3.    Height  Growth. 

By  means  of  a  hypsometer,^  the  heights  of  standing  trees  can 
be  rapidly  and  easily  obtained.  A  table  made  from  these  results 
will  show  the  average  height  of  trees  of  different  diameters,  and 
as  the  method  of  determining  the  average  age  of  different  diam- 
eters has  already  been  given,  the  average  height  growth  can  be 
ascertained  by  combining  the  two  in  the  following  manner. 


Diameter, 

breast  high, 

inches. 

Average  height, 
feet. 

Average  age 

of  diameter 

classes, 

years. 

Height  growth 

per  year, 

feet. 

5 
6 
7 
8 

9 
10 

25 
32 
40 
48 

57 
69 

20 
26 

40 
44 
50 

I.I 
1-3 

I.O 

2.2 
2.0 

See  note,  Chapter  IX. 


176 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW   ENGLAND 


The  height  growth  of  individual  trees  can  be  obtained  by- 
counting  the  rings  at  the  various  sections  into  which  the  tree 
is  cut.  The  number  of  rings  on  the  stump  represents  the  total 
age  of  the  portion  of  the  tree  above  the  stump  cut.  Obviously 
a  tree  two  hundred  years  old  would  have  that  number  of  rings 
at  its  base,  but  it  would  have  only  one  ring  at  the  very  tip  for 
the  growth  made  the  last  year.  Since  the  first  ring  is  made  by 
the  leader,  the  number  of  rings  in  any  section  of  the  tree 
represents  the  number  of  years  since  the  leader  reached  that 
point.  Each  section  cut  from  the  base  up  has,  therefore,  a 
diminishing  number  of  rings.  This  difference  in  age  at  various 
sections  is  the  number  of  years  required  by  the  tree  to  grow 
the  distance  between  the  sections.  By  cutting  felled  trees  into 
sections  it  is  possible  to  read  the  record  of  their  height  growth. 

4.    Volume  Growth. 

To  compute  the  mean  annual  growth  of  a  tree  after  the  volume 
and  age  are  obtained,  one  divides  the  volume  by  the  total  age. 
The  figures  below,  which  are  actual  measurements  of  a  few 
trees  of  different  species,  illustrate  this  method. 


Species. 


Total 
volume, 
cubic  feet. 


Total 

volume, 

board  feet. 


Age, 
years. 


Mean  annual  growth. 


cubic  feet,     board  feet 


White  pine 
White  pine 
White  pine 
Hemlock.  . 
Hemlock.  . 
Hemlock.  . 
Beech 


48 
32 
72 
370 
552 
480 
225 


40 

44 

314 

294 

255 


1. 14 
.80 
1.60 
1. 16 
1.90 
I  5° 
1. 00 


In  the  life  of  most  trees,  there  are  periods  of  slow  growth  due 
to  suppression  by  neighboring  trees,  or  to  other  causes.  For 
this  reason  the  mean  annual  growth  is  always  low.  Foresters 
sometimes  speak  of  the  economic  age  of  a  tree  as  referring  to 
that  part  of  the  tree's  life  during  which  it  made  a  normal 
growth. 


GROWTH   OF   TREES    AND    FORESTS 


177 


The  chief  purpose  of  studying  tree  volume  growth  is  to  be 
able  to  predict  future  growth  for  a  coming  period.  This  can 
best  be  done  by  a  study  of  periodic  growth  made  under  condi- 
tions similar  to  those  which  are  likely  to  obtain  during  the  period 
to  be  predicted.  Unless  there  is  a  radical  change  of  conditions, 
the  rate  of  growth  during  the  ten  coming  years  may  fairly  be 
expected  to  approximate  that  of  the  past  ten  years.     The  growth 


Fig.  65.  —  A  study  of  the  growth  of  an  indivitUial  pitch  pine  tree  is  in  progress. 


of  a  past  period  is  easily  obtained,  (i)  by  determining  the  present 
volume  of  the  tree;  (2)  by  counting  the  desired  number  of  rings 
from  the  bark  inward  at  both  ends  of  the  logs,  and  obtaining  the 
volume  of  the  tree  at  the  beginning  of  the  period;  (3)  by  sub- 
tracting the  second  volume  from  the  first.  If  the  percentage 
of  growth  is  desired,  this  remainder  is  divided  by  the  volume 
at  the  beginning  of  the  period.  For  example,  a  red  oak  sixty 
years  old  had  a  volume  of  8.4  cubic  feet.     Its  volume  ten  years 

ago  was  6  cubic  feet,  and  the  tree  grew  at  the  rate  of  ^  or  40  per 

cent.  But  the  annual  growth  was  .24  cubic  foot,  and  hence  its 
annual  rate  was  4  per  cent.     Usually  the  rate  of  growth  of  a 


1 78  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

tree  in  percentage  falls  with  increasing  age,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  it  lays  on  more  wood  each  year  even  if  the  width  of  the  rings 
remains  the  same.  Although  the  actual  amount  of  wood  made 
may  increase,  this  increase  is  an  ever-decreasing  proportion  of 
the  total  volume  of  the  tree.  Suppose,  for  example,  that  the 
red  oak  mentioned  above  grew  3  cubic  feet  during  the  decade 
between  sixty  and  seventy  years,  the  percentage  of  growth  would 

be  ~  or  35  per  cent. 
5.4 

B.     GROWTH    OF    STANDS. 

Thus  far  the  growth  of  individual  trees  has  been  considered; 
it  is  important  for  many  purposes  to  ascertain  the  growth  of 
stands  or  whole  forests.  Forest  management  depends  very 
largely  on  this  knowledge,  especially  the  more  intensive  forms 
of  management,  such  as  are  in  use  in  Europe.  In  Austria,  for 
example,  the  policy  is  to  cut  and  reproduce  a  stand  as  soon  as 
it  ceases  to  yield  a  satisfactory  rate  of  interest.  This  is  called 
the  financial  maturity  of  the  stand.  In  Baden  and  other  coun- 
tries the  forest  working  plans  prescribe  the  cutting  of  an  equal 
amount  of  wood  each  year,  while  in  Wiirttemberg,  an  equal  area 
is  cut  over  annually.  A  knowledge  of  the  growth  of  the  different 
stands  is  essential  for  the  Baden  system.  In  our  own  country, 
forestry  which  aims  at  a  permanent  income  must  rest  on  tliis 
kind  of  knowledge. 

Just  as  we  have  considered  the  growth  in  diameter,  height 
and  volume  of  individual  trees,  so  the  growth  of  whole  stands 
should  be  discussed  under  similar  headings. 

I.   Age  of  Stands. 

The  age  of  a  stand  is  usually  considered  to  coincide  with  the 
age  of  the  tree  of  average  size  in  the  stand.  Such  a  tree  is 
selected  and  its  age  ascertained  as  already  described.  This 
result  is  taken  as  the  average  age  of  the  stand.  Such  a  figure 
has  more  value  in  even-aged  than  in  uneven-aged  stands. 


GROWTH   OF   TREES   AND   FORESTS  1 79 

2.  Diameter  Growth. 

The  only  accurate  method  of  determining  the  diameter  growth 
of  a  stand  is  to  measure  carefully  all  the  trees  in  a  stand,  mark 
the  points  at  which  the  measurements  are  taken,  and  remeasure 
after  a  series  of  years.  Usually,  for  accurate  purposes  of  this 
kind,  the  circumferences  are  measured  and  the  diameter  growth 
calculated  from  the  growth  in  circumference.  This,  of  course, 
is  impracticable  for  immediate  purposes.  Fairly  accurate  data 
may  be  obtained  from  the  mean  sample  tree  or  tree  of  average 
diameter.  If  the  growth  for  the  whole  life  of  the  stand  is  desired, 
the  sample  tree  is  felled  and  the  rings  counted  and  measured; 
but  if  the  growth  for  the  past  few  years  only  is  required,  a  gash 
can  be  cut  in  an  inch  or  so  and  the  radial  growth  measured. 
The  measurements  from  this  sample  tree  are  considered  as 
representing  the  diameter  growth  of  the  average  tree  in  the 
stand.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  average  tree  is  normal  in 
other  respects  as  well  as  diameter. 

3.  Height  Growth. 

The  height  growth  of  a  second-growth  pine  forest  can  easily 
be  obtained  by  counting  the  whorls  of  branches  of  a  few  average 
trees.  With  other  species  it  is  necessary  to  cut  and  measure 
a  few  trees  of  average  height. 

4.    Volume  Growth. 

One  of  the  simplest  methods  of  determining  the  volume  growth 
of  a  stand  is  to  obtain  the  growth  per  cent  of  a  mean  sample 
tree,  that  is,  a  tree  of  average  size,  and  apply  this  per  cent  to  the 
total  estimated  volume  of  the  stand.  Thus,  if  the  sample 
tree  is  growing  at  the  rate  of  4  per  cent  and  the  total  volume 
of  the  stand  per  acre  is  20  cords,  the  growth  of  the  stand  may  be 
considered  as  .8  of  a  cord  per  acre. 

Often  the  mean  annual  growth  of  a  stand  is  found  and  used 
as  a  basis  for  predicting  the  future  growth.  To  secure  this  the 
stand  is  carefully  estimated,  and  the  total  volume  divided  by 


l8o  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

the  average  age,  which  may  be  considered  as  the  age  of  the 
average  sized  tree.  For  example,  a  stand  which  has  produced 
forty  cords  to  the  acre  in  thirty  years  may  be  expected  to  produce 
about  one  and  one-third  cords  per  acre  a  year,  for  the  next  few 
years.  This  method  of  predicting  growth  is  only  approximate 
because  the  growth  of  a  stand  is  not  uniform  throughout  its 
life.  During  the  first  part  of  its  Hfe  the  annual  growth  would 
exceed  the  mean  annual  growth,  but  in  later  years  it  would  be 
less. 

As  a  basis  of  forest  management  to  indicate  what  different 
types  of  forest  can  produce  under  various  conditions,  and  at 
different  ages,  so-called,  yield  tables^  are  in  use.  Compara- 
tively few  of  these  have  as  yet  been  constructed  in  this  country, 
but  their  construction  is  one  of  the  most  important  lines  of 
forestry  research  open  to  the  forester.  These  tables  are  based 
on  the  measurements  of  many  stands  of  a  given  type  at  different 
ages,  and  express  the  average  volume  per  acre  that  can  be  ex- 
pected at  different  ages.  Such  tables  may  be  "local,"  if  based 
on  stands  in  a  single  community,  or  "general,"  when  the  data 
is  secured  over  a  large  area,  as  a  whole  forest  region.  It  will  be 
readily  seen  that  yield  tables,  for  even-aged  stands,  not  only  are 
more  easily  made,  but  are  of  wider  application  than  those  for 
uneven-aged  stands.  Since  the  chief  use  of  yield  tables  is  to 
predict  what  forests  will  produce  under  favorable  circum- 
stances, they  are  based  usually  on  the  measurements  of  fully 
stocked  stands,  and '  then  are  called  "normal."  Often  it  is 
impossible  in  our  irregular  forests  to  find  acres  that  are  fully 
stocked,  and  consequently  fractions  of  acres  are  measured  rather 
than  entire  acres  which  include  open  areas.  Three  classes  of 
forests  need  to  be  studied  for  the  construction  of  such  yield 
tables:  (a)  unthinned  pure  forests;  {b)  unthinned  mixed 
forests;  (c)  thinned  stands.  Thus  far  all  of  the  yield  tables 
made  in  this  country  have  been  for  the  first  and  second  classes, 
especially  for  pure  forests,  and  do  not  indicate  what  these  forests 
can  produce  when  properly  treated.     In  the  future  this  last  (c) 

1  Several  yield  tables  are  included  in  the  appendix. 


GROWTH   OF   TREES    AND   FORESTS  l8l 

class  of  yield  tables  will  be  chiefly  needed,  especially  in  forest 
regions  with  the  best  market  conditions. 

Normal  yield  tables  cannot  be  made  for  uneven-aged  forests, 
since  cuttings  in  such  forests  are  made  at  regular  intervals 
when  only  a  part  of  the  stand  is  removed.  For  rough  yield 
tables  with  which  to  estimate  the  growth  of  such  stands,  it  is 
customary  in  this  country  to  designate  in  tabular  form  the 
number  of  years  required  for  each  diameter  inch  class  to  grow 
one  inch,  and  from  this  to  estimate  the  amount  of  timber  that 
can  be  produced  in  a  given  period.  Since  the  rate  of  growth 
is  based  almost  entirely  on  conditions  different  from  those  which 
will  prevail  in  the  future,  these  tables  should  not  be  taken  too 
seriously. 


PART    II. 
NEW   ENGLAND  FORESTS  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT. 


CHAPTER   XL 

THE   ORIGINAL  FORESTS  AND   THEIR  EARLY  DEVELOPMENT. 

While  the  early  history  of  New  England  abounds  with  ref- 
erences to  the  forest,  they  are  unsatisfactory  as  far  as  yielding 
light  on  the  real  character  of  those  forests.  We  can,  however, 
gain  a  fair  picture  of  them  from  the  records  of  the  early  forest 
industries  and  from  the  laws  which  were  passed  regulating  their 
use. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  there  was  an  immense  white 
pine  forest  stretching  across  Massachusetts  to  the  foot  of  the 
Berkshires  and  extending  well  up  the  rivers  of  Maine  and  to  Lake 
Winnepesaukee  in  New  Hampshire.  It  reached  still  farther 
north  through  the  Connecticut  valley  and  its  tributaries,  such 
as  the  Ammonoosuc  and  Passumpsic,  and  from  the  borders  of 
Lake  Champlain  as  far  inland  as  the  base  of  the  Green  Moun- 
tains. On  the  better  soils,  hardwoods  were  frequently  mixed  with 
the  pines;  birch,  maple,  beech  in  the  north;  oak,  hickory,  chest- 
nut in  the  south.  On  some  of  the  drier  sandy  lands  the  pitch 
pine  was  perhaps  even  more  common  than  the  white  pine,  as  in 
the  Cape  Cod  district  and  the  Connecticut  valley  near  Hartford. 

The  pine  was  always  confined  to  the  warmer  soils  and  seldom 
reached  good  development  on  elevations  exceeding  1500  feet. 
Bordering  the  pine  country  in  the  north  or  in  the  mountains  was 
spruce,  forming  pure  forests  throughout  much  of  the  northern 
portion  of  Maine  and  of  the  White  Mountains,  but  usually  mixed, 
in  Vermont,  with  the  hardwoods.     Even  in  the  swamps  and 

183 


l84  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

lower  slopes  of  northern  Maine  giant  pines  were  often  mixed  in 
with  the  spruce.  But  a  more  common  companion  of  the  spruce 
was  the  fir,  which  probably  formed  a  smaller  percentage  of  the 
mixture  in  the  virgin  forests  than  it  now  does  owing  to  its  re- 
markable reproduction.  For  the  same  reason  the  hardwood 
forests  of  southern  New  England  had  a  larger  percentage  of  oak 
and  hickory  than  at  present,  for  with  every  succeeding  cutting 
the  chestnut,  owing  to  its  unequaled  sprouting  capacity,  has 
gained  on  its  competitors. 

The  forests  of  England  had  ceased  to  be  important  timber 
producers  centuries  before  the  settlement  of  America.  With  her 
forests  handled  even  in  those  days  chiefly  as  game  preserves  of 
the  nobility,  England  had  been  obliged  to  rely  largely  on  Scot- 
land and  Scandinavia  for  lumber. 

The  English  Government  undoubtedly  appreciated  her  new- 
found American  possessions  more  for  these  great  forest  resources 
than  for  their  possibilities  for  colonization.  While  at  this  period 
the  West  Indies  probably  occupied  a  greater  place  in  the  estima- 
tion of  that  Government  than  did  New  England,  there  was  no  lack 
of  appreciation  of  the  value  to  the  English  navy  of  our  timber. 
In  fact,  the  navy  which  made  possible  England's  supremacy  of 
the  sea  through  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  and 
which  alone  prevented  an  invasion  of  England  by  Napoleon,  was 
largely  made  of  New  England  timber  and  rehed  even  more  com- 
pletely on  this  country  for  masts.  Many  interesting  incidents 
bearing  light  on  the  timber  supply  are  mentioned  in  the  famous 
diary  of  Samuel  Pepys,  who,  in  the  days  of  Charles  II,  was 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  as  for  example,  the  following: 

"Dec.  2,  1666.  I  went  to  Sir  W.  Batten's  and  there  I  hear 
more  ill  news  still:  that  all  our  New  England  fleete,  which  went 
out  lately,  are  put  back  a  third  time  by  foul  weather,  and  dis- 
persed some  to  one  port  and  some  to  another;  and  their  convoys 
also  to  Plymouth;  and  whether  any  of  them  be  lost  or  not  we  do 
not  know.  This  added  to  all  the  rest  do  lay  us  flat  in  our  hopes 
and  courages,  everybody  prophesying  destruction  to  the  nation." 

"Dec.  3,  1666.  At  noon  home,  more  cheerful  than  I  have 
been  a  good  while,  to  hear  that  for  certain  the  Scotch  rebels  are 


ORIGINAL   FORESTS   AND    THEIR   EARLY   DEVELOPMENT      185 

all  routed;  .  .  .  There  is  also  the  very  good  news  come  of 
four  New  England  ships  come  home  safe  to  Falmouth  with  masts 
for  the  King;  which  is  a  blessing  mignty  unexpected,  and  with- 
out which,  if  for  nothing  else,  we  must  have  failed  the  next  year. 
But  God  be  praised  for  this  much  good  fortune,  and  send  us  the 
continuance  of  his  favour  in  other  things." 

It  was  in  this  same  year  that  the  great  fire  of  London,  necessi- 
tating the  use  of  a  large  amount  of  lumber,  brought  the  whole 
question  of  lumber  supply  prominently  before  the  English 
nation.  Charles  II,  inspired  by  the  example  of  Louis  XIV,  that 
great  patron  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  had  created  the  Royal 
Society,  and  John  Evelyn  had  brought  forth  in  1662  his  "Silva," 
the  first  work  on  forestry  in  the  Enghsh  language.  In  the 
dedication  of  this  most  interesting  volume  to  the  King  in  1678, 
Evelyn  says:  "I  need  not  acquaint  your  Majesty  how  many 
millions  of  timber  trees  have  been  propagated  and  planted 
throughout  your  vast  Dominions,  at  the  instigation,  and  by  the 
sole  direction  of  this  work;  because  your  Gracious  Majesty,  has 
been  pleased  to  own  it  Publickly  for  my  Encouragement,  who,  in 
all  that  I  here  pretend  to  say  deliver  only  those  Precepts  which 
your  Majesty  has  put  into  Practice;  as  having  (like  another 
Cyrus)  by  your  own  Royal  Example,  exceeded  all  your  Pred- 
ecessors in  the  Plantations  you  have  made,  beyond  (I  dare 
assert  it)  all  the  Monarchs  of  this  Nation,  since  the  Conquest 
of  it." 

It  is  not  surprising  that  a  government  thus  sohcitous  of 
forestry  interests  should  have  imposed  many  regulations  on  the 
cutting  of  the  forests  in  the  new  land,  nor  is  it  strange  that  the 
settlers  coming  from  a  country  where  they  fully  realized  the  need 
of  forest  conservation,  should  have  humbly  submitted  to  these 
regulations  and  indeed  imposed  rules  and  by-laws  of  their 
own. 

It  is  probable  that  the  first  sawmill  in  New  England,  and  very 
likely  in  America,  was  built  at  Agamentico,  later  known  as  York, 
Maine,  in  1623,  or  the  following  year,  under  the  direction  of  Sir 
Ferdinando  Gorges,  from  whom  is  quoted:  ''I  sent  over  my  son 


1 86  FORESTRY  IN  NEW   ENGLAND 

and  my  nephew,  Capt.  Wm.  Gorges,  who  had  been  my  lieuten- 
ant in  the  Fort  at  Plymouth,  with  some  other  craftsmen  for  the 
building  of  houses  and  the  erecting  of  sawmills."  ^  The  second 
mill  was  probably  erected  at  Salmon  Falls  River  in  what  is  now 
South  Berwick  Township,  Maine,  in  1631  or  the  year  following. 
Of  this  and  other  mills  it  is  said  that ''  Capt.  Mason  sent  into  this 
country  eight  Danes  to  build  mills,  to  saw  timber  and  tend  them, 
and  to  make  potashes."  It  is  altogether  probable  that  all  the 
first  sawmills  were  Scandinavian  institutions,  as  there  were  none 
in  England  until  1663,  at  which  time  hundreds  of  them  were  in 
use  in  New  England.  While  sawmills  had  been  used  in  Europe 
from  the  earhest  times,  conditions  of  timber  supply  and  labor  in 
England  were  such  that,  even  as  late  as  1767,  a  sawmill  was 
destroyed  by  an  EngUsh  mob  because  it  represented  too  great  a 
saving  of  labor. 

The  first  sawmill  in  Massachusetts  was  erected  about  1633; 
the  first  in  New  Hampshire  near  Portsmouth,  before  1635;  the 
French  settlers  had  sawmills  at  Ticonderoga  at  an  early  date. 
Between  1640  and  1650  several  sawmills  were  erected  in  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  Colony;  and  Connecticut  was  not  far  behind  in 
the  use  of  power  for  making  lumber,  for  the  younger  Winthrop, 
afterwards  Governor  of  Connecticut,  brought  a  millwright  to 
New  London  and  put  up  a  sawmill  in  1651.  Before  the  close  of 
the  century  there  were  several  in  Connecticut. 

After  about  1650  the  sawmill  almost  immediately  followed 
settlement  in  any  portion  of  New  England,  usually  in  connection 
with  a  grist  mill,  and  the  location  of  a  water  power  often  deter- 
mined the  location  of  the  settlement.  The  right  to  erect  and 
operate  sawmills  was,  in  the  early  days,  granted  by  town  meet- 
ings, and  it  is  evident  that  the  people  were  wide  awake  to  the 
benefit  of  having  a  local  mill.  In  a  grant  by  the  "townsmen  of 
Saco"  to  Roger  Spender,  it  was  stipulated  that  he  should  build 
his  mill  within  a  year,  that  all  the  "townsmen  should  have 
hordes  12  pence  in  a  hundred  cheaper  than  any  stranger,"  and 

^  For  much  of  this  material  we  are  indebted  to  a  "  History  of  the  Lumber  Industry 
of  America,"  by  Defebaugh. 


ORIGINAL   FORESTS   AND   THEIR    EARLY   DEVELOPMENT      187 

that  the  townsmen  who  would  work  erecting  the  mill  "as  cheap 
as  a  stranger  "  should  have  preference. 

Commerce  and  shipbuilding  had  an  early  beginning  in  New 
England.  An  early  record  states  that  in  1623  a  ship  of  a  hun- 
dred and  forty  tons,  called  the  Anne,  was  freighted  at  Plymouth 
and  returned  to  England  with  a  cargo  consisting  of  clapboards 
with  a  few  beaver  skins  and  other  furs. 

These  clapboards  were  oak  staves  for  wine  casks  and  had  a 
good  sale  in  London.  The  settlers  of  the  West  Indies  also  de- 
pended upon  New  England  for  their  supphes  of  barrels  and 
boxes  in  which  to  export  their  molasses  and  sugar.  As  early  as 
1629  there  were  six  shipwrights  at  work  in  Boston,  and  on  July  4, 
1 63 1,  Governor  John  Winthrop  launched  at  Mystic,  now  Somer- 
ville,  a  vessel  of  sixty  tons,  called  the  Blessing  of  the  Bay.  It  was 
the  first  vessel  built  in  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  and 
demonstrated  the  excellence  of  New  England  timber  for  this 
purpose.  Medford,  Marblehead,  and  Salem  soon  began  to 
build  ships.  Gradually  all  the  seacoast  settlements  took  up 
this  industry,  from  Maine  to  Connecticut.  The  industry,  be- 
sides requiring  a  large  amount  of  first-class  white  oak  lumber, 
also  depended  upon  a  ready  supply  of  the  so-called  "naval 
stores  "  such  as  pitch,  tar,  and  turpentine.  These  materials  have 
long  since  been  considered  special  products  of  the  south,  but  for 
a  century  after  the  first  settlement  of  Windsor,  Connecticut,  and 
the  neighboring  region  the  manufacture  of  these  products  from 
the  pitch  pine  was  an  extensive  industry.^  In  fact,  the  first 
Indian  deed  in  this  territory  had  its  origin  in  this  business,  for  it 
seems  that  in  1643,  John  Grifhn  and  Michael  Humphrey  com- 
menced the  manufacture  of  pitch  and  tar  and  the  collecting  of 
turpentine.  Manahanoose,  an  Indian  chief,  was  so  unfortunate 
a  few  years  later  as  to  kindle  a  fire  which  in  its  progress  consumed 
a  large  quantity  of  pitch  and  tar  belonging  to  Mr.  Grifhn.  To 
make  amends  for  this  the  chief  deeded  to  the  injured  party  all 
his  lands  at  Masscoe.     The  General  Court  early  recognized  the 

^  "The  Forests  of  Connecticut,"  by  A.  F.  Hawes,  Connecticut  Magazine,  Vol. 
X,  No.  2. 


1 88  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

importance  of  this  industry  by  granting  in  1663  to  Mr.  Griffin, 
two  hundred  acres  in  consideration  "that  he  was  the  first  that 
perfected  the  art  of  making  pitch  and  tar  in  those  parts."  These 
materials  were  in  great  demand  for  the  uses  of  the  British  navy 
as  well  as  for  shipbuilding  generally.  They  commanded  a  ready 
sale  at  high  prices,  and  were  nearly  the  only  articles  allowed  by 
England  to  be  exported.  The  town  of  Enfield  and  probably 
others  granted  the  privilege  to  box  a  certain  number  of  trees, 
but  this  grant  did  not  convey  the  land  nor  the  trees.  The 
record  of  such  grants  reads  as  follows: 

"July,  1705.  Mr.  Joseph  Sexton  is  posesed  of  so  many  pine 
trees  as  may  aford  three  thousand  boxes  which  are  a  littel  south- 
ward of  or  south  est  of  buk  horn  and  ye  same  sid  of  wedow 
glesons  medow,  these  afored  trees  are  bounded  on  every  with 
common  land."  The  industry  was  so  important  that  we  find  an 
act  in  the  Pubhc  Records  of  the  Colony  of  Connecticut  providing 
for  inspection  of  all  barrels  of  tar  and  turpentine.  In  1709,  the 
inhabitants  of  Hartford  voted  "if  any  persons  shall  box  any  pine 
trees  within  the  bounds  of  the  town  of  Hartford,  either  on  the 
comons,  or  undivided  lands,  he  shall  forfeit  to  the  towns  use  the 
sum  of  five  shilhngs  for  every  tree  so  improved."  This  act  of 
restriction  probably  marks  the  beginning  of  the  end,  such 
measures  usually  coming  after  a  scarcity  has  begun  to  be  felt. 

The  settlement  of  Massachusetts  was  so  rapid  that  most  of 
the  lumber  was  required  for  domestic  purposes,  but  a  great  ex- 
porting lumber  business  grew  up  in  Maine  at  an  early  date.  By 
1682,  there  were  twenty-four  mills  in  the  territory  now  known  as 
Maine.  The  most  important  lumber-shipping  port  of  the  colonies 
during  the  seventeenth  century  was  that  of  the  Piscataquis 
River.  During  the  ten  months  ending  April  12.  1681,  according 
to  statements  made  by  the  King's  Council  to  the  Lords  of  Trade, 
there  were  entered  at  that  port  "twenty-two  ships,  eighteen 
ketches,  two  barkes,  one  scallop,  and  one  flyboat,  —  in  all  forty- 
seven."  .  .  .  "The  Trade  of  the  province  is  in  masts,  planks 
and  staves  and  all  other  lumber."  Pine  for  masts  and  oak  and 
tamarack  for  shipbuilding  were  cut  not  only  on  the  Piscataquis 


ORIGINAL   FORESTS   AND    THEIR   EARLY   DEVELOPMENT      1 89 

but  the  St.  Croix  and  other  rivers  of  Maine.  Later  the  Penob- 
scot became  the  most  important  lumber  stream. 

The  destruction  of  white  pine  early  became  a  subject  of  solici- 
tation on  the  part  of  the  government.  In  King  WilHam's  reign 
a  surveyor  of  the  woods  was  appointed  by  the  crown  and  an  order 
was  sent  to  the  governor-general  to  cause  an  act  to  be  passed 
in  the  several  governments  for  the  preservation  of  the  white 
pines.  In  fact  the  crown  claimed  the  pick  of  all  the  forest  and 
no  one  but  officers  were  supposed  to  cut  the  pines.  Many  con- 
flicts arose  between  the  people  and  these  officers.  The  woods- 
men, asserting  a  "Swamp  Law,"  cut  their  share.  Forestry 
regulations  of  this  sort  were  imposed  not  only  by  the  crown  but 
by  the  colonies. 

The  lumber  industry  of  the  colonies  steadily  grew  up  to  the 
time  of  the  Revolution,  and,  in  fact,  was  not  long  interrupted  by 
the  war.  In  1770  the  export  of  masts,  boards,  staves,  etc.,  from 
New  England  was  valued  at  £45,000;  ships,  about  70  sail,  at 
£49,000;  and  potash  to  the  amount  of  8000  barrels,  at  £20,000. 
The  trade  in  lumber  was  largely  with  the  West  Indies,  Madeira, 
and  the  Canaries. 

The  first  use  of  the  word  "lumber"  in  its  present  sense  ap- 
parently dates  back  to  the  early  colonial  times  when  the  wharves 
of  Boston  were  "lumbered"  over  with  boards,  logs,  etc. 

Practically  the  last  act  looking  toward  the  preservation  of  the 
forest  was  an  act  passed  by  Massachusetts  in  1784,  providing  a 
fine  of  $100  for  cutting  a  white  pine  tree  on  the  public  lands. 
Two  years  later  the  Commonwealth  abandoned  this  poHcy  of 
protection  in  favor  of  immediate  realization  of  its  resources. 
Both  by  royal  and  local  authority  restrictions  on  the  cutting  of 
timber  had  been  severe,  but  now  within  twelve  years  after  the 
close  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  Massachusetts  disposed  of  three 
and  one-half  million  acres,  much  of  it  through  lottery,  in  the 
region  now  Maine.  Undoubtedly  she  was  sadly  in  need  of 
revenue  after  the  heavy  drain  of  the  war,  but  the  disposal  of 
much  of  this  public  nonagricultural  land  in  Massachusetts  then 
and  later  throughout  the  United  States  was  one  of  the  greatest 


IQO  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

mistakes  made  by  a  people  just  beginning  to  govern  themselves. 
Canada  has  been  fortunate  in  escaping  a  policy  which,  until  the 
administration  of  President  Cleveland,  was  followed  by  our  state 
and  national  governments. 

Naturally  the  lumber  business  grew  rapidly  with  the  removal 
of  the  old  restrictions  and  the  passing  of  these  great  tracts  into 
private  hands.  The  French  traveler  Michaux  ^  says,  that  when 
he  was  at  Windsor,  Maine,  in  1806,  "the  river  was  covered  with 
thousands  of  logs  of  which  the  diameter  of  the  greater  part  was 
fifteen  or  sixteen  inches,  and  that  of  the  remainder  (perhaps  one- 
fiftieth  of  the  whole)  twenty  inches.  The  blue  ash  and  red  pine 
were  the  only  species  mingled  with  them  (white  pine)  and  these 
in  not  the  proportion  of  one  to  a  hundred."  He  adds  elsewhere: 
"For  a  space  of  600  miles  from  Philadelphia  to  a  distance  beyond 
Boston,  I  did  not  observe  a  single  stock  of  the  white  pine  large 
enough  for  the  mast  of  a  vessel  of  600  tons."  In  1807  the  im- 
portations of  timber  to  Great  Britain  from  the  United  States 
amounted  to  $1,302,980,  of  which  white  pine  formed  about 
one-fifth.  This  sold  in  Liverpool  at  that  time  at  about  $20 
per  M. 

Probably  the  greatest  transfer  of  lands  ever  made  in  New 
England  was  that  known  as  the  "Bingham  Purchase,"  by  which, 
in  1793,  William  Bingham,  of  Philadelphia,  secured  2,107,396 
acres  in  Maine  at  twelve  and  a  half  cents  an  acre.  Much  of  the 
land  disposed  of  by  the  state  in  these  early  days  went  to  pay 
soldiers  of  the  Revolution  and  the  War  of  181 2.  Perhaps  the 
best  disposition  of  public  land  was  to  the  various  colleges  which 
were  established  about  this  time.  According  to  an  early  history 
of  New  England,  about  80,000  acres  were  originally  granted  to 
Dartmouth  College,  and  it  was  estimated  that  the  income  from 
this  in  1805  would  be  the  munificent  sum  of  $2000,  a  little 
over  two  cents  an  acre.  The  Legislature  of  Vermont  granted 
about  33,000  acres  in  1791  for  the  support  of  the  University  at 
Burlington.  Unfortunately  this  was  scattered  through  every 
section  of  the  state,  and  an  economical  management  of  it  was 

^  See  "History  of  .\merican  Lumber  Industry,"  Defebaugh. 


ORIGINAL   FORESTS   AND   THEIR   EARLY  DEVELOPMENT      191 

impossible.  Most  of  it  was  rented  under  permanent  leases. 
Bowdoin  College  received  a  grant  of  six  townships  from  the 
Legislature  of  Maine. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  white  pine 
lumber  industry  grew  to  immense  proportions.  Before  this  time 
the  rural  parts  of  southern  New  England  had  begun  to  be 
depopulated,  and  gradually  lands  on  the  hillsides  of  Vermont 
and  New  Hampshire  were  abandoned  for  farm  purposes.  When 
the  country  districts  had  been  well  inhabited  a  great  amount  of 
wood  was  used  as  fuel  by  the  farmers.  Many  of  the  early 
manufacturing  industries  also  used  large  quantities  of  charcoal. 
For  the  production  of  these  fuel  supphes  great  forest  regions 
such  as  the  whole  western  part  of  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts 
were  cut  over  again  and  again.  President  Dwight  of  Yale,  who 
traveled  extensively  throughout  New  England  in  the  early  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  describes  a  system  common  in  Con- 
necticut at  that  time  of  allowing  the  sprouts  of  chestnut  and  oak 
to  grow  for  fifteen  or  twenty  years  and  then  cutting  them  off  for 
wood.  Unquestionably  the  more  accessible  regions  were  cut 
again  and  again  in  this  way.  But  when  the  farm  population  had 
fallen  off  greatly,  much  of  this  demand  for  wood  ceased.  About 
the  same  time  railroads  were  built  and  coal  was  introduced  for 
fuel  for  manufacturing  purposes.  Wood  lots  which  had  been  cut 
close  were  allowed  to  grow  up,  and  the  increased  area  given  up 
to  brush  resulting  in  an  oversupply  of  fuel,  a  drop  in  the  price 
followed,  so  that  fuel  wood  is  now  not  worth  cutting  in  many 
sections  of  New  England,  where  formerly  it  was  worth  from  $1 
to  $2  a  cord  standing.  Gradually  a  demand  grew  for  larger 
materials,  as  railroad  ties,  telephone,  telegraph,  and  electric- 
hght  poles,  and  these  are  now  among  the  chief  products  of  the 
chestnut  and  oak  forests  of  southern  New  England. 

The  first  steam  engines  burned  wood,  and  many  a  hillside  of 
Vermont  and  New  Hampshire  was  stripped  of  its  forest  to  meet 
this  demand.  The  original  settlers  of  the  more  remote  localities 
got  no  other  returns  from  their  forests,  which  were  destroyed  to 
make  room  for  agriculture,  than  that  furnished  by  the  potash 


192  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

and  pearl  ash  which  they  sold  in  Montreal  and  Boston.  After 
the  admission  of  Vermont  to  the  Union  a  great  industry  grew 
up  which  Robinson  in  his  entertaining  history  of  the  state  de- 
scribed thus:  "The  great  pines  that  fifty  years  before  had  been 
reserved  for  the  'masting  of  His  Majesty's  navy/  were  felled  now 
by  hardy  yeomen  who  owed  allegiance  to  no  earthly  king,  and 
gathered  into  enormous  rafts,  voyaged  slowly  down  the  lake, 
impelled  by  sail  and  sweep.  They  bore  as  their  burden  barrels 
of  potash  that  had  been  condensed  from  the  ashes  of  their 
brethren  whose  giant  trunks  had  burned  away  in  grand  con- 
flagration that  made  midnight  hills  and  vales  and  skies  bright 
with  lurid  flame.  The  crew  of  the  raft  lived  on  board,  and  the 
voyage  (down  Lake  Champlain  and  the  Richeheu  to  Canada) 
though  always  slow  was  pleasant  and  easy  when  the  south  wind 
filled  the  bellying  sail,  wafting  the  ponderous  craft  past  the 
shifting  scene  of  level  shore,  rocky  headland,  and  green  islands." 
For  years  these  great  rafts  of  timber  went  north  to  Montreal 
where  they  were  exported,  but  with  the  completion  of  the  canal 
joining  the  Lake  with  the  Hudson,  the  current  of  traffic  was 
turned  in  the  other  direction.  Finally  the  timber  of  the  Cham- 
plain  valley  was  gone  and  the  products  of  Canadian  forests  now 
supply  the  trade  of  Burlington,  still  one  of  the  busiest  lumber 
markets  of  New  England. 

There  is  no  better  picture  of  the  condition  of  the  Maine  forests 
and  the  industries  dependent  upon  them  in  the  middle  of  the 
last  century  than  in  Thoreau's  "Maine  Woods."  "Think  how 
stood  the  white  pine  tree  on  the  shore  of  Chesuncook,  its 
branches  soughing  with  the  four  winds,  and  every  individual 
needle  trembhng  in  the  sunhght  —  think  how  it  stands  with  it 
now,  sold,  perchance  to  the  New  England  Friction-Match  Com- 
pany. There  were  in  1837,  as  I  read,  two  hundred  and  fifty  saw- 
mills on  the  Penobscot  and  its  tributaries  above  Bangor  and  they 
sawed  two  hundred  millions  of  feet  of  boards  annually.  To  this 
is  to  be  added  the  lumber  of  the  Kennebec,  Androscoggin,  Saco, 
Passamaquoddy,  and  other  streams.  No  wonder  that  we  hear 
so  often  of  vessels  which  are  becalmed  off  our  coast,  being  sur- 


ORIGINAL   FORESTS   AND   THEIR   EARLY   DEVELOPMENT      1 93 

rounded  a  week  at  a  time  by  floating  lumber  from  the  Maine 
woods." 

Thoreau's  first  trip  up  the  Penobscot  was  in  1846.  Just  above 
the  mouth  of  the  east  branch,  he  says:  "The  woods  hereabouts 
abounded  in  beech  and  yellow  birch,  of  which  last  there  were 
some  very  large  specimens ;  also  spruce,  cedar,  fir,  and  hemlock ; 
but  we  saw  only  the  stumps  of  the  white  pine  here,  some  of  them 
of  great  size,  these  having  been  already  culled  out,  being  the 
only  tree  much  sought  after,  even  as  low  down  as  this.  Only 
a  little  spruce  and  hemlock  beside  had  been  logged  here.  The 
eastern  wood  which  is  sold  for  fuel  in  Massachusetts  all  comes 
from  below  Bangor.  It  was  the  pine  alone  that  had  tempted 
any  but  the  hunter  to  precede  us  on  this  route."  Even  in  those 
days  Maine  was  famous  for  its  forest  fires,  for  he  says:  "The 
lumberers  rarely  trouble  themselves  to  put  out  their  fires,  and 
this  is  one  cause,  no  doubt,  of  the  frequent  fires  in  Maine,  of 
which  we  hear  so  much  on  smoky  days  in  Massachusetts." 
Thus  interestingly  he  describes  the  Bangor  of  that  day:  "There 
stands  the  city  of  Bangor,  fifty  miles  up  the  Penobscot,  at  the 
head  of  navigation  for  vessels  of  the  largest  class,  the  principal 
lumber  depot  on  this  continent,  with  a  population  of  twelve 
thousand,  like  a  star  on  the  edge  of  night,  still  hewing  at  the 
forests  of  which  it  is  built,  already  overflowing  with  the  luxuries 
of  Europe,  and  sending  its  vessels  to  Spain,  to  England,  and  to 
the  West  Indies." 

At  this  time  little  was  used  from  the  great  forests  but  pine, 
but  gradually  as  this  became  scarce  and  had  to  be  sought  in  the 
west  the  lumbermen  of  northern  New  England  began  to  saw  the 
better  specimens  of  spruce.  Later  the  great  pulp  industry  grew 
up  to  use  an  ever-increasing  quantity  of  that  species  for  the  pro- 
duction of  paper.  Tracts  which  long  ago  had  been  culled  of 
their  pine  and  later  of  their  large  spruce  were  now  gone  over  for  a 
third  and  a  fourth  time  for  smaller  spruce  trees  for  pulp.  The 
rivers  of  Maine,  the  Merrimac,  the  Connecticut  and  its  branches 
still  bear  their  great  drives  of  logs  in  the  spring.  A  goodly  pro- 
portion of  these  now  go  to  the  pulp  mills.     With  the  extension  of 


194  FORESTRY  IN  NEW   ENGLAND 

railroads  throughout  the  territory  many  veneer  mills  and  other 
concerns  using  hardwoods  have  sprung  up  and  the  proportion  of 
birch  and  maple  lumber  used  is  constantly  increasing. 

A  generation  ago  another  important  change  came  in  the 
lumber  industry  —  the  introduction  of  the  portable  steam  saw- 
mill. Up  to  this  time  many  small  tracts  back  in  the  mountains 
had  escaped  cutting.  Now  it  was  possible  to  take  a  mill  into  the 
farthest  of  these  lots  and  transport  only  the  finished  lumber. 
Hundreds  of  these  Httle  mills  have  been  at  work  throughout  the 
region  and  virgin  tracts  are  now  rare.  While  they  have  in  the 
past  done  much  damage  there  is  no  reason  why  in  the  future  they 
should  not  be  an  instrument  for  the  improvement  of  our  forests. 

From  the  foregoing  brief  sketch  of  the  early  industries  of  New 
England  it  will  be  realized  how  intimately  the  hfe  of  the  people 
was  connected  with  the  forest.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the 
change  of  feeling  toward  the  forest  which  has  taken  place  during 
the  three  centuries  of  our  history.  As  has  been  said,  the  earliest 
settlers  from  England  showed  an  appreciation  of  the  forest 
wealth  of  their  new  country.  But  the  difficulty  of  clearing  away 
the  woods  and  making  the  land  tillable,  the  loneliness  of  the  long 
forest  trails,  and,  more  than  all,  the  dread  of  the  forest  as  a  hiding 
place  of  Indian  war  parties,  gradually  changed  the  feeling  of 
respect  to  one  of  enmity  if  not  actual  hate.  To  children  reared 
on  the  New  England  frontier  the  forest  was  probably  as  dark  and 
foreboding  as  were  those  of  the  early  German  legends.  Not  until 
well  into  the  nineteenth  century  was  the  forest  visited  by  pleasure 
seekers.  Thoreau  wrote  much  about  the  forests  and  their  ways 
and  was  bitter  against  their  destruction.  Other  writers  took  up 
the  part  of  the  forest  in  a  more  or  less  sentimental  way,  and  this 
gave  rise  to  the  woodman-spare-that-tree  type  of  conservationist 
who  was  long  the  laughing  stock  of  the  lumberman,  and  with 
whom  the  forester  was  at  first  confused  to  the  detriment  of  the 
forestry  cause.  After  the  railroads  had  reached  into  Maine  and 
New  Hampshire,  big  hotels  were  built  which  were  more  or  less 
dependent  on  the  forest  for  their  patronage,  and  during  the  last 
generation  most  of  the  large  forested  watercourses  have  become 


ORIGINAL   FORESTS  AND   THEIR   EARLY  DEVELOPMENT      195 

more  or  less  bordered  with  summer  cottages.  Now,  with  im- 
proved roads  and  automobiles,  a  new  movement  is  rapidly 
gaining  throughout  New  England.  Business  men  are  making 
their  permanent  homes  in  the  country  and  are  acquiring  large 
tracts  of  cheap  land  much  of  which  is  covered  with  second-growth 
forest. 

Everyone  is  coming  to  see  that  the  original  forests  of  the  United 
States  will  soon  be  exhausted,  and  the  enthusiasm  for  forestry 
and  conservation  in  general,  which  has  swept  the  country  in  the 
past  decade,  is  strong  in  New  England.  Nowhere  in  the  country 
are  the  opportunities  for  the  practice  of  forestry  better  than  here, 
and  nowhere  has  greater  or  finer  progress  in  private  forestry  been 
made  than  in  this  old  region  which  has  been  lumbered  over  and 
burned  over  for  nearly  three  centuries. 


CHAPTER   XII. 
PRESENT  FOREST   CONDITIONS. 

As  emphasized  in  the  preceding  pages,  the  New  England 
forest  in  its  virgin  condition,  although  often  uniform  over  broad 
areas,  yet  showed  important  differences  in  character;  especially 
as  the  observer  traveled  in  a  general  north  and  south  direction 
across  the  whole  territory.  Tht  differences  in  character  were 
expressed  mainly  by  changes  in  composition  {i.e.,  in  the  species 
of  trees  making  up  the  forest)  brought  about  by  variations  in 
climatic  conditions  and  in  soil  and  amount  of  moisture  in  the 
ground,  as  explained  in  the  chapter  on  Silvics. 

With  the  advent  of  settlement,  which  is  always  accompanied 
by  lumbering,  forest  fires,  and  the  clearing  of  land  for  farms, 
conditions  which  had  for  centuries  governed  the  growth  and 
development  of  the  New  England  forest  were  changed,  and  as 
a  result  of  this  interference  with  the  natural  conditions  forests 
now  prevail  which  often  differ  widely  from  the  original  growth. 
Settlement  has  not  only  occasionally  changed  the  original  char- 
acter of  the  forest,  but  it  has  everywhere  emphasized  its  varia- 
tions in  character  throughout  the  region. 

New  England  now  is  naturally  divided  into  four  forest  regions 
within  each  of  which  the  forest  has  a  distinctive  character  of  its 
own.  The  chief  species  of  trees  are  not  the  same  in  any  of  the 
four  regions;  and,  what  is  even  more  significant,  the  density  of 
settlement  and  the  available  markets  for  forest  products  vary 
immensely  from  region  to  region.  From  the  standpoint  of  forest 
management  these  two  factors  (density  of  population  and  avail- 
able markets  for  forest  products)  are  of  much  more  importance 
than  the  character  of  the  forest.  For  without  suitable  oppor 
tunities  for  the  sale  of  wood  no  forestry  can  be  practiced. 

196 


PRESENT   FOREST   CONDITIONS 


197 


Opposite  this  page  is  given  a  map  showing  the  location  of  the 
four  forest  regions  into  which  New  England  is  divided.  Actu- 
ally, on  the  ground,  no  such  fixed  boundaries  can  exist  as  are 
traced  on  the  map.  In  reality  for  several  miles  along  the  border 
line  between  two  regions  it  may  be  hard  to  distinguish  within 
which  of  the  two  a  particular  tract  lies. 

Thus  the  map  is  intended  to  indicate  only  the  general  location 
and  relative  area  occupied  by  each  region,  rather  than  to  furnish 
definite  boundary  lines  between  regions. 

The  total  area  of  the  New  England  States  is  42,537,600  acres. ^ 
Included  in  this  Is  2,874,880  acres  of  water  surface,  the  remain- 
der, 39,662,720  acres  being  land  surface.  In  giving  the  areas 
for  the  four  forest  regions  water  surfaces  have  been  left  out,  and 
the  figures  given  in  the  table  are  the  approximate  areas  of  land 
surface  in  the  different  regions.  The  area  and  per  cent  forested 
are  given  for  each  region  as  well  as  the  per  cent  of  New  England 
occupied  by  the  region. 

TABLE    SHOWING    FORESTED    AREAS   OF    NEW   ENGLAND. 


j    Total  area  of    | 
P„_:„_                        I         region                   Per  cent  of 
'^'^*^'""-                          Qand  surface),     region  forested .= 

1      ""•■ 

Area  forested, 
acres . 

Per  cent  of 

New  England 

occupied  by 

region. 

17,341,600 

7,025,700 

11,889,640 

3,405,780 

90 

50 
40 
40 

15,607,440 
3-512,850 
4-755-856 
1,362,312 

43h 

17* 

30 

9 

Northern  hardwoods.  . 

White  pine 

Sprout  hardwoods 

All  New  England 

39,662,720    1         64 

25,238,458 

100 

-  Forested  area  includes  waste  land  and  brush  land. 


The  spruce  region  lies  to  the  north  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire, 
and  Vermont,  a  large  share  of  Its  area  being  in  Maine.  It  is 
largely  a  region  of  conifers.  The  chief  trees  here  are  the  red 
spruce,  the  balsam,  and  the  northern  white  cedar  (Thuja  occi- 
dentalis) . 

1  Based  on  the  figures  given  in  the  United  States  Census  for  1900. 


198  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

Among  the  hardwoods  paper  and  yellow  birch,  the  aspens,^ 
hard  maple,  and  beech  are  most  important.  The  country  is  still 
wild  and  rugged,  as  yet  untouched  by  settlement,  and  with  soils 
so  thin,  steep,  or  stony  as  to  be  useless  for  agriculture. 

The  northern  hardwoods  region  extends  through  Maine,  New 
Hampshire,  and  Vermont,  into  western  Massachusetts,  having 
its  greatest  area  in  Vermont. 

The  forest  is  composed  chiefly  of  hard  maple,  yellow  birch, 
and  beech — trees  commonly  spoken  of  as  ''northern  hardwoods." 
Conifers  such  as  red  spruce  and  hemlock  play  a  subordinate  part. 
Owing  to  the  greater  depth  and  fertility  of  the  soils  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  region  is  farmed  and,  as  a  whole,  it  is  much 
better  settled  than  the  spruce  region. 

Next  comes  the  white  pine  region,  found  in  all  six  of  the  New 
England  States,  but  centering  in  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire, 
and  Maine.  White  pine  rules  here,  although  other  species  occur 
commercially.  In  this  region  settlement  is  thickest.  Numer- 
ous towns  and  cities  furnish  excellent  markets,  while  a  large 
variety  of  manufacturing  plants  create  a  demand  for  wood  in 
various  forms. 

The  sprout  hardwoods  region  Hes  at  the  south  in  Connecticut, 
Rhode  Island,  and  Massachusetts,  occupying  nearly  the  entire 
State  of  Connecticut.  Like  the  white  pine  region  it  is  a  well- 
settled  section,  with  many  manufacturing  industries;  but  the 
main  species  of  trees  are  different.  Chestnut  and  the  oaks  pre- 
dominate, while  conifers  in  commercial  quantities  are  conspicu- 
ous by  their  absence. 

The  precipitation  is  fairly  uniform  throughout  all  New  Eng- 
land, ranging  between  forty  and  fifty  inches  annually.  In  the 
White  Mountain  region  of  New  Hampshire  it  rises  to  over  fifty 
inches. 

This  brief  description  will  serve  roughly  to  distinguish  the 
four  regions.     In  the  succeeding  chapters  may  be  found  a  de- 

1  The  aspens,  in  spite  of  the  softness  of  their  wood,  are  classed  among  the  hard- 
woods on  account  of  their  similarity  in  mode  of  growth  and  because  they  are  all 
broad-leaved,  deciduous  trees. 


PRESENT   FOREST   CONDITIONS  1 99 

tailed  discussion  of  each  region  and  the  possibilities  for  forest 
work  which  it  presents. 

How  TO   Find   Information  Applicable   to  a  Particular 
Tract. 

If  it  is  desired  to  secure  definite  information  that  may  aid  in 
the  management  of  a  particular  tract,  the  forest  region  in  which 
the  tract  is  located  should  first  be  ascertained,  which  can  be 
done  by  consulting  the  regional  map.  With  the  proper  forest 
region  determined,  the  next  step  will  be  to  consult  the  chapters 
treating  of  this  region  and  to  select  the  forest  types  to  which  the 
forest  of  the  tract  in  question  most  closely  approaches. 

The  forest  types  determined  on  this  tract  may  not  coincide 
exactly  with  those  described  in  the  book,  since  the  innumerable 
variations  of  tree  associations  which  actually  occur  in  a  forest 
region  render  it  impracticable  to  describe  more  than  the  few 
most  important  and  typical  ones.  But  the  types  in  the  field  will 
correspond  closely  enough  with  those  in  the  book  so  that  their 
relationship  can  be  easily  recognized.  Methods  of  treating  each 
of  the  chief  types  of  a  region  will  be  found  and  the  treatment  for 
the  desired  type  should  be  studied. 

It  is  believed  that  by  following  this  procedure  an  owner  of 
woodlands  can  not  only  avail  himself  of  the  general  information 
in  regard  to  forestry  and  its  application  in  New  England,  but  can 
also  secure  assistance  in  the  detailed  treatment  of  his  own  local 
forest  problem. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE  SPRUCE  REGION. 

General  Considerations. 

The  spruce  region  occupies  the  most  elevated  portions  of  New 

England;  and  within  its  borders  he  the  headwaters  of  nearly  all 

its  principal  rivers.     The  White  Mountains  of  New  Hampshire 

furnish  the  most  striking  topographic  feature  of  the   region. 


Fig.  66.  —  A  general  view  of  the  topography  in  the  Vermont  portion  of  the  spruce  region. 

They  include  seventy-four  peaks  over  3000  feet  in  height,  with 
Mount  Washington  the  highest,  6290  feet.  The  peaks  of  the 
White  Mountains  do  not  form  a  single  range,  but  are  grouped 
in  an  irregular  manner;  and  with  their  steep,  often  precipitous 
slopes  and  deep,  narrow  valleys  make  an  extremely  rugged 
country. 

North  of  the  White  Mountains  in  New  Hampshire  the  country 
is  not  so  rough.  Many  lakes  occur.  The  mountains  are  lower, 
less  precipitous,  and  have  between  one  another  fairly  broad 
valleys. 


THE    SPRUCE   REGION  201 

The  spruce  region  in  Vermont  lies  in  a  long,  narrow  belt, 
running  north  and  south  through  the  center  of  the  state,  on 
the  Green  Mountain  range.  The  extreme  northeastern  corner 
of  the  state  is  also  in  the  spruce  region.  The  Vermont  section 
must  be  considered  a  rough  country,  although  it  is  not  nearly 
so  rugged  as  the  White  Mountains. 

In  Maine  the  country  is  less  rugged  than  in  New  Hampshire 
and  Vermont.  A  broad  plateau  runs  northeast  from  the  western 
side  across  the  Rangeley  and  Moosehead  Lake  districts.  It 
gradually  slopes  eastward  toward  the  Penobscot  River  basin, 
while  to  the  north  the  gentle  slope  of  the  St.  John  River  system 
is  reached.  In  southeastern  Maine  the  plateau  runs  down  to 
sea  level. 

On  this  plateau,  especially  in  central  Maine,  occasional 
mountains  rise  to  relatively  high  altitudes,  such,  for  example,  as 
Mount  Katahdin,  elevation  5385  feet.  A  feature  of  the  Maine 
section  is  the  large  number  of  lakes  and  ponds  and  the  abundant 
waterways,  navigable  at  least  for  small  craft  such  as  canoes. 
The  comparatively  level  nature  of  central  and  eastern  Maine, 
with  its  intricate  network  of  small  streams  and  ponds,  makes  an 
ideal  country  for  transporting  timber;  while  the  White  Moun- 
tains offer  many  obstacles  to  cheap  and  easy  logging. 

Granites  and  gneisses  form  the  bedrock  of  the  spruce  region; 
and  from  them  is  derived  a  soil  rich  in  the  elements  essential  to 
plant  Hfe. 

The  soils,  however,  are  not  generally  suitable  for  agriculture. 
In  earher  times  glaciers  passed  over  the  country,  often  carrying 
away  the  soil  and  leaving  the  rock  bare.  Usually,  however,  a 
covering  of  soil  and  rock  debris,  varying  in  thickness  from 
scarcely  an  inch  to  many  feet,  was  deposited. 

So  many  rocks  are  found  in  these  glacial  deposits  that  from 
this  cause  alone  many  soils  are  rendered  unfit  for  farm  purposes. 
When  to  this  is  added  the  fact  that  many  soils  are  extremely 
shallow,  that  many  sites  have  steep  slopes,  and  that  large  areas 
of  bog  and  swamp  occur,  it  will  be  readily  understood  that  but  a 
small  proportion  of  the  soils  in  the  region  are  suitable  for  farm- 


202  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

ing,  even  though  it  is  true  that  its  soils  are  chemically  rich 
enough  for  agricultural  use.  The  soils  of  the  spruce  region  are 
largely  true  forest  soils;  that  is,  soils  which  for  all  time  should 
be  devoted  to  the  production  of  wood  crops. 

No  accurate  surveys  for  classifying  the  kinds  of  land  have  been 
made;  but  from  the  best  available  data  it  has  been  estimated 
that  not  more  than  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  land  has  agri- 
cultural value;  and  less  than  ten  per  cent  is  at  present  used  for 
such  purposes.  The  farm  land  lies  in  belts  along  the  principal 
valleys;  or  in  isolated  clearings  near  railroad  stations,  around 
which  small  towns  have  arisen.  Fully  ninety  per  cent  of  the  area 
is  now  forested,  in  which  is  included  cut-over  and  burned  areas. 

The  forest  as  a  whole  is  composed  of  trees  of  all  ages,  inter- 
mixed on  the  same  area;  it  is  thus  an  "uneven-aged"  or  an  "all- 
aged"  forest.  Exceptions  to  this  character  occur;  for  some- 
times a  part  of  the  forest  is  found  where  the  trees  are  all  of  one 
age  over  considerable  areas;  i.e.,  an  "even-aged"  forest.  But 
such  cases  are  in  the  minority.  Mixed  stands  made  up  of  several 
species,  both  conifers  and  broad-leaved  trees,  prevail  rather  than 
pure  stands.  The  principal  species  are  all  shade-bearing  (toler- 
ant) trees,  several  of  them  possessing  the  power  to  endure  shade 
for  many  years,  such  as  spruce  and  hard  maple. 

Red  spruce  is  the  characteristic  and  predominant  tree  of  the 
region.  Here  it  finds  chmatic  conditions  suited  to  its  best 
growth  and  development.  Nowhere  else  in  the  United  States 
does  spruce  do  so  well  as  in  this  region.  It  is  at  its  optimum  in 
the  White  Mountains  and  in  the  upper  drainage  of  the  Andros- 
coggin River  in  New  Hampshire  and  Maine.  There  are  three 
species  of  spruce  found :  red,  black,  and  white  or  Canadian  spruce. 
The  latter  two  are  of  much  less  frequent  occurrence  than  the  red; 
the  black  spruce  occurring  mainly  in  bogs  as  a  small  tree  of  little 
commercial  value,  while  the  white  spruce  grows  in  small  num- 
bers in  stream  valleys  on  moist  ground. 

Balsam  {Abies  balsamea)  appears  everywhere,  sometimes  as- 
sociating with  the  spruce  and  occasionally  forming  pure  stands. 

Two  species  of  pine,  the  white  pine  and  the  red  or  Norway  pine, 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION  203 

occur,  but  not  as  important  commercial  trees.  The  red  pine 
is  apt  to  grow  on  sandy  areas  which  are  sometimes  found  along 
the  main  river  valleys  forming  pure  groves  or  mixed  with  white 
pine.  The  white  pine  likes  similar  sites  though  it  is  more 
widely  scattered  through  the  spruce  forest. 

Hemlock  occurs  through  the  region  singly  or  in  groups,  but 
is  not  by  any  means  an  abundant  tree. 

In  the  swamps  tamarack  or  larch  and  the  northern  white  cedar 
{Thuja  occidentalis)  are  frequent  trees.  The  larch  is  mostly  of 
small  size  and  not  commercially  important.  The  cedar  occurs 
both  in  mixture  with  other  species  and  also  in  pure  stands.  It  is 
a  valuable  tree,  especially  in  Maine,  while  in  the  mountainous 
sections  of  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont  it  is  not  so  common. 

Hard  maple,  beech,  and  yellow  birch  are  important  trees. 
They  are  apt  to  grow  together,  forming  on  certain  good  soils  the 
bulk  of  the  stand  with  a  small  amount  of  spruce  in  the  mixture. 
The  beech  and  hard  maple  are  of  comparatively  poor  quahty  and 
thrive  better  in  regions  further  south. 

Yellow  birch,  however,  finds  here  optimum  conditions  for  its 
development. 

Paper  birch  in  some  parts  of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire  is  a 
tree  of  considerable  commercial  value.  It  is  scattered  generally 
over  the  entire  region. 

The  aspens  {Populus  balsamea,  Populus  tremuloides,  and  Popu- 
lus  grandidentata)  occur  on  burned-over  and  cut-over  lands  in 
mixture  with  other  trees  or  in  pure  stands.  Where  abundant, 
aspen  is  valuable  for  pulpwood. 

Forest  Types. 

Within  the  spruce  region  the  forest  is  not  the  same  through- 
out, for  the  different  species  found  do  not  all  occur  in  the  same 
proportions  in  all  places.  Indeed,  there  may  be  an  endless 
variety  and  a  wide  range  in  the  combinations  of  the  different 
species;  so  much  so,  that  no  two  spots  in  a  forest  can  be  said  to 
be  alike  in  every  detail.  Over  considerable  areas,  however,  the 
forest  may  for  all  practical  purposes  be  the  same.     This  gives 


204 


FORESTRY   IN  NEW   ENGLAND 


rise  to  "forest  types"  or  associations  of  forest  trees,  each  asso- 
ciation having  a  distinctive  character  which  usually  is  readily 
recognized  even  by  persons  not  technically  trained.  To  the 
forester,  these  forest  types  are  helpful  in  a  practical  way  in 
managing  the  forest,  because  for  each  type  the  same  general 
method  of  treatment  holds  good.  For  this  reason  the  main 
forest  types  in  a  region  are  always  determined  and  studied  in 
order  to  ascertain  the  way  in  which  each  can  best  be  treated. 


Fig.  67.  —  Logging  camp.     Pure  spruce  in  the  background. 


The  forest  of  the  spruce  region  can  be  classified  with  advantage 
into  six  forest  types.  These  six  grade  one  into  the  other  with 
innumerable  variations  which  might  be  considered  as  separate 
subtypes,  so  that  it  may  often  be  difficult  to  identify  the  main 
forest  type. 

Of  these  six  types,  two  are  of  a  transitory  nature  and  owe  their 
existence  to  the  action  of  fire  or  to  the  clearing  of  land.  In  other 
words,  they  have  come  in  as  a  result  of  interference  with  natu- 
ral conditions.     If  left  undisturbed,  these  two  types  (temporary 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION  205 

forest  types)  revert  to  some  one  of  the  other  four  forest  types 
(permanent  forest  types). 

The  six  types  are: 

Permanent  Forest  Types: 

1.  Swamp. 

2.  Spruce  Flat. 

3.  Hardwood. 

4.  Spruce  Slope. 

Temporary  Forest  Types: 

5.  Birch  and  Poplar. 

6.  Old  Field. 

I.  Sivamp.  —  Forests  of  the  swamp  type,  as  the  name  would 
imply,  occur  on  the  low,  wet  ground  near  lakes  and  streams,  and 
are  most  abundant  in  the  Maine  section  of  the  region.  In  Ver- 
mont and  the  White  Mountain  section  of  New  Hampshire  rela- 
tively little  swamp  land  is  found. 

The  soil  is  apt  to  be  wet  throughout  the  year  and  is  covered 
with  a  dense  bed  of  sphagnum  moss  often  of  considerable  depth. 
In  certain  times  of  the  year  the  swamps  are  nearly  impassable 
on  account  of  the  water  present. 

Spruce  forms  from  thirty  to  fifty  per  cent  of  the  number  of 
trees,  both  red  and  black  spruce  occurring.  Other  conifers 
which  thrive  here  are  balsam,  northern  white  cedar,  and  tama- 
rack. 

Among  the  hardwoods,  black  ash,  soft  maple,  and  yellow  birch 
are  the  most  common. 

The  character  of  the  growth  is  poor;  this  is  well  shown  in  the 
spruce  which,  on  the  average,  is  small  when  compared  with 
spruce  timber  on  the  other  types.  Two  causes  are  assigned  as 
contributing  to  this  small  size.  First,  the  growth  is  slow  and 
it  takes  the  individual  trees  much  longer  to  attain  a  given  diam- 
eter than  on  less  swampy  sites.  Second,  due  to  the  great  danger 
from  windfall  on  the  soft,  wet  land  of  this  type,  the  chances  are 
very  much  against  individual  trees  attaining  any  considerable 


2o6  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

size.  Old  trees  are  usually  blown  over  before  they  reach  large 
diameters.  The  timber  of  merchantable  size  is  apt  to  be  un- 
sound. A  yield  of  5000  feet,  board  measure,  per  acre,  over  a 
whole  swamp  would  be  high. 

The  forest  of  the  swamp  land  is  decidedly  uneven-aged. 
Trees  of  all  ages  are  intermingled  singly  or  in  groups.  Wherever 
openings  are  made  by  the  death  or  decay  of  older  trees,  there 
small  patches  of  seedlings  start  up  on  the  wet,  mossy  floor.  The 
reproduction  secured  in  this  manner  is  sufhcient  to  keep  the 
type  thoroughly  stocked. 

While  the  typical  swamp  forest  contains  a  mixture  of  sev- 
eral species  with  spruce  predominant,  yet  in  exceptional  cases 
pure  stands  of  other  trees  occur  in  the  swamps.  Sometimes 
the  northern  white  cedar  takes  possession,  forming  a  dense 
valuable  growth.  Sometimes  tamarack  grows  pure,  always  in  a 
rather  open  stand  and  on  the  wet  ground  near  the  shores  of  lakes. 
The  balsam  may  form  pure  stands  in  the  swamps  and  grows  in 
almost  impenetrable  thickets. 

On  newly-formed  ground  close  to  lakes  the  black  spruce  may 
grow  alone  in  a  park-like  stand,  reaching  a  maximum  size  scarcely 
large  enough  for  pulp. 

2.  Spruce  Flat.  —  The  spruce  flat  type  occurs  on  low  rolKng 
ground  above  the  watercourses.  It  is  an  abundant  type  in  the 
leveler  portions  of  the  region,  such  as  parts  of  northern  New 
Hampshire  and  in  Maine. 

The  soils  are  moist  but  not  wet  as  in  the  swamps.  They  may 
be  deep  or  shallow  and  are  characteristically  strewn  with  rocks. 
The  drainage  is  fairly  good. 

Spruce  forms  about  fifty  per  cent  or  more  of  the  stand.  The 
spruce  here  is  practically  all  red  spruce,  black  spruce  being 
entirely  absent  and  white  spruce  of  only  occasional  occurrence. 
Originally,  white  pine  was  an  important  tree  in  this  type,  but  it 
was  largely  cut  out  in  the  early  lumbering  operations.  Balsam 
is  abundant,  sometimes  covering  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent  of 
the  area.  Hemlock  grows  sparingly  in  this  type,  and  the  maples 
and  birches  also  occur. 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION 


207 


The  best  individual  specimens  of  cedar  are  found  in  this  type, 
but  it  is  not  a  common  tree. 

The  timber  is  of  much  better  quality  than  in  the  swamp  for- 
est.    Still  it  is  often  unsound  and  does  not  average  so  good  as 


Fig.  68.  —  Spruce 


,t  running  6000  feet,  B.M.,  per  acre.     Chief  species  are,  from  left  to 
right,  yellow  birch,  balsam,  arborvitae,  spruce. 


on  the  better-drained  ground.  Considerable  windfall  takes  place 
as  the  soil  is  always  moist;  although  on  account  of  its  location 
the  type  is  sheltered  from  excessive  wind  damage.  Yields  of 
15,000  feet,  board  measure,  per  acre  are  not  uncommon. 

Spruce  and  balsam,  especially  the  latter,  reproduce  exceedingly 
well  on  lands  of  this  type.     They  take  advantage  of  the  least 


2o8  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

opening  in  the  forest  canopy,  appearing  wherever  Hght  reaches 
the  forest  floor. 

3.  Hardwood.  —  The  sites  characteristic  of  this  type  have 
well-drained  soils  of  considerable  depth,  and  usually  the  most 
fertile  in  the  region.  In  the  mountainous  section  of  Vermont  and 
New  Hampshire  this  type  occurs  on  the  lower  slopes.  In  the 
White  Mountains  it  does  not  run  above  elevations  of  2400  to 
2500  feet.  It  occupies  the  low  hills  and  broad,  rolHng  valleys  in 
northern  New  Hampshire  and  Maine.  The  type,  in  proportion 
to  the  forest  area,  is  most  abundant  in  the  Vermont  section. 

Spruce  is  still  present  in  this  type  forming  on  the  average 
twenty  to  thirty  per  cent  of  the  stand.  But  it  has  yielded  the 
foremost  place  to  three  hardwoods:  the  hard  maple,  the  yellow 
birch,  and  the  beech.  These  three  species  make  up  sixty  per 
cent  or  more  of  the  composition.  Other  species,  varying  with 
the  locality,  mingle  with  these  four  trees. 

On  the  fertile  soils  of  the  hardwood  land  the  spruce  reaches  its 
best  individual  development,  although  numerically  less  import- 
ant than  in  other  types.  The  hardwoods  with  their  thick  foliage 
assist  the  spruce  in  clearing  its  trunk  of  branches  and  make  clear 
boles.  Being  sturdy,  deep-rooted  species,  they  support  the 
shallow-rooted  spruce,  preventing  windfall,  and  allow  the  latter 
to  reach  great  size  and  age  uninjured. 

The  hardwood  timber  is  much  of  it  overmature  and  de- 
teriorating. It  has  not  been  lumbered  extensively  throughout 
the  region,  though  in  a  few  places  heavy  cuttings  have  taken 
place.  To-day  in  the  accessible  regions  it  is  rapidly  being  cut. 
12,000  to  15,000  feet,  board  measure,  per  acre  is  a  fair  maxi- 
mum yield,  while  the  average  stand  yields  much  less. 

Most  of  the  best  spruce  has  been  removed  by  loggers  and  the 
percentage  of  hardwoods  is  on  the  increase. 

Logging  operations  have  attacked  the  spruce  first  and  more 
heavily  than  the  hardwoods,  and  this,  coupled  with  the  fact  that 
the  situation  is  best  adapted  for  hardwood  reproduction,  pre- 
vents the  spruce  from  maintaining  its  position  in  the  type.  The 
reproduction  is  good,  but  almost  wholly  of  hardwoods. 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION  20Q 

The  thick  litter  of  hardwood  leaves,  which  covers  the  ground, 
furnishes  a  germinating  bed  far  more  favorable  for  the  develop- 
ment of  hardwood  seeds  than  for  those  of  spruce  or  balsam. 
The  latter  like  a  cover  of  moss,  rotten  wood,  or  coniferous  duff 
for  germination. 

A  thick  undergrowth  of  witchhobble  and  mountain  maple  is 
characteristic  of  the  hardwood  type.  Indeed,  once  seen  it  will 
serve  to  identify  this  type  of  forest. 


Fig.  69.  —  Spruce  slope  type.     .Stand  about  40,000  feet  per  acre. 

4.  Spruce  Slope.  —  The  spruce  slope  type  occupies  steep, 
rocky  slopes  with  thin  soils.  Often  the  soil  is  practically  lacking, 
thick  deposits  of  moss  and  duff  here  taking  the  function  of  soil. 
When  a  forest  fire  passes  over  such  lands  the  moss  and  dufif  are 
consumed  together  with  the  wood  and  nothing  is  left  but  the 
bare  rock.  The  roughest  sites  and  the  shallowest  soils  of  the 
region  fall  in  the  t5^e.  It  is  well  distributed  through  the  entire 
region,  but  is  most  important  in  the  more  mountainous  parts, 
such,  for  example,  as  the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hampshire, 
where  occur  many  slopes  of  extreme  steepness. 


210  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

Spruce  is  the  most  prominent  tree,  composing  fifty  to  seventy- 
five  per  cent  of  the  growth.  With  the  spruce,  balsam  is  usually 
associated,  and  two  hardwoods  may  be  found,  the  yellow  birch 
and  the  paper  birch.     Hemlock  occasionally  occurs. 

The  timber  is  not  of  such  poor  character  as  might  be  inferred 
from  the  quality  of  the  site,  as  spruce  thrives  in  amazingly  poor 


By  permission  of  the  U.  5.  Forest  Service. 
Fig.  70.  —  The  upper  slope  type.    Here  the  forest  changes  into  stands  of  unmerchantable 
material  growing  smaller  as  the  slope  is  ascended.     Notice  moss  covered  bark  indicating 
great  age. 

situations.  Usually  the  timber  grows  in  thick  stands  with  long, 
clear  boles  of  smaller  diameter  than  on  the  hardwood  land,  but 
still  of  good  quality. 

The  heaviest  stands  of  spruce  in  the  region  are  found  in  the 
spruce  slope  type.  Exceptional  single  acres  sometimes  run  as 
high  as  40,000  feet,  board  measure,  but  for  a  tract  of  any  size  a 
yield  of  10,000  feet,  board  measure,  per  acre  is  excellent.  On 
good  sites  it  is  the  most  productive  of  the  four  permanent  types. 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION  211 

As  the  slopes  are  ascended  the  timber  naturally  becomes 
smaller,  due  both  to  the  absolute  elevation  and  because  the  soil 
and  moisture  decrease  with  increasing  height.  Finally,  on  a 
few  of  the  higher  mountains,  timber  line  is  reached,  above  which 
no  tree  growth  is  found.  This  line  is  between  4500  and  5000  feet 
above  sea  level. 

On  the  upper  slopes,  from  3500  feet  in  elevation  up  to  timber 
line,  the  slope  type  does  not  contain  trees  of  merchantable  size. 
They  are  scrubby  and  twisted  and  often  only  a  few  feet  high. 
Balsam  usually  predominates  in  these  stands  at  high  elevations, 
and  may  form  the  entire  growth.  Black  spruce  also  occurs  at 
these  high  elevations.  These  unmerchantable  stands  perform 
a  most  important  function  as  protection  forests  where  such 
forests  are  badly  needed. 

Excellent  reproduction  takes  place  in  the  spruce  slope  type. 
Even  in  the  virgin  stands  plenty  of  seedlings  and  young  growth 
ordinarily  are  found.  Balsam  seedlings  are  apt  to  exceed  the 
spruce  in  such  stands,  though  the  latter  is  well  represented. 

5.  Birch  and  Poplar.  —  This  is  one  of  the  temporary  types 
occurring  on  no  particular  kind  of  soil  or  site.  It  is  confined, 
however,  to  lands  of  differing  qualities  of  soil  which  have  been 
burned  over. 

On  such  land  the  leaf  litter  and  moss  have  been  destroyed  and 
the  mineral  soil  is  left  bare  and  exposed.  Such  a  seed  bed  is 
preferred  by  yellow  and  paper  birch  and  poplar.  The  light  seeds 
of  these  species  are  blown  in  by  the  wind,  often  for  several 
thousand  feet,  and  germinate  on  the  bare  soil  of  the  burned  lands, 
creating  the  type. 

Yellow  and  paper  birch  and  poplar  {Populus  tremuloides  and 
grandide?itata  and  a  little  halsamea)  are  the  chief  species.  Other 
light-seeded  species,  such  as  red  maple  and  mountain  maple,  are 
often  abundant.  One  fairly  heavy-seeded  species  may  be  pres- 
ent in  considerable  quantities.  This  is  the  bird  cherry,  the  seeds 
of  which  are  brought  in  by  birds  and  scattered  over  the  burned 
areas. 

This  composition  is  but  temporary,  as  under  the  light  shade 


212  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

of  these  hardwood  trees  various  conifers  spring  up.  The  conifers 
gradually  enter,  usually  five  to  ten  years  after  the  hardwoods 
have  started,  and  form  an  understory.  The  conifers  are  the  more 
persistent  growers  and  longer-lived  trees,  so  that  finally  they  out- 
live the  hardwoods  and  gain  possession  of  the  land,  causing  the 


By  permission  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 
Fig.  71.  —  The  birch  and  poplar  type,  starting  after  fire  on  lumbered  land. 

type  to  revert  to  one  of  the  four  permanent  types  previously 
described. 

On  extensive  burns  where  conifers  have  failed  to  seed  in,  owing 
to  the  absence  of  seed  trees,  the  birch  and  poplar  type  may  hold 
the  land  for  several  generations.  Unless  the  type  is  burned  over 
after  cutting,  the  conditions  are  not  especially  favorable  for 
seedhng  reproduction  of  birch  and  poplar,  but  paper  birch  fre- 
quently sprouts  prohfically  from  the  cut  stumps,  while  poplar 
sends  up  large  numbers  of  root  suckers.  These  root  suckers 
persist,  and  will  reach  merchantable  size. 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION 


213 


The  type  is  found  all  through  the  region,  being  most  abundant 
in  sections  where  there  have  been  many  and  large  burns  in 
previous  years.  Within  the  last  ten  years  better  fire  protection 
has  been  the  rule.  This  prevents  the  formation  of  seed-bed 
conditions  favorable  to  the  start  of  birch  and  poplar  stands. 


Fig.  72.  —  Birch  and  poplar  type.    A  40  year  old  stand  on  an  old  burn,  chiefly  yellow 
birch  and  pin  cheixy.    Beneath  the  hardwoods  conifers  are  coming  in. 


Thus  the  area  of  that  type  cannot  be  increasing.  Instead  of 
being  stationary  it  is  decreasing,  because  reversion  to  other  types 
is  continually  lessening  the  present  area. 

The  birch  and  poplar  type  is  an  example  of  an  even-aged 
forest.  The  majority  of  the  trees  in  a  given  stand  started  at 
practically  the  same  time  and  are  more  nearly  of  the  same 


214 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


diameter  and  height  than  is  the  case  in  any  of  the  four  permanent 
types.     The  latter  are  examples  of  uneven-aged  forests. 

Figures  secured  recently  by  the  United  States  Forest  Ser- 
vice ^  in  this  region  indicate  that  stands  of  paper  birch  on  first- 
quality  soil  will  yield,  at  sixty  years,  forty  cords  of  wood  per 
acre,  and  on  second  quality  soil  nearly  thirty  cords  of  wood  per 
acre.     Definite  data  for  poplar  stands  are  not  available,  but  the 


Fig.  73.  —  A  stand  of  the  birch  and  poplar  type  10  to  is  years  old. 

growth  should  equal  or  shghtly  exceed  that  made  by  paper 
birch  stands.  The  general  impression  has  been  that  the  birch 
and  poplar  type  was  the  fastest  growing  one  in  the  region. 
This,  however,  is  not  the  case,  although  it  is  a  fast  growing  one. 
For  the  first  twenty  to  thirty  years  it  may  exceed  all  others,  but 
after  that  age  the  growth  falls  off. 

The  old  field  type  has  a  much  higher  average  growth  when 
stands  of  merchantable  size  are  considered  and  must  be  classed 
as  the  fastest  growing  one  in  the  spruce  region,  with  the  birch 
and  poplar  type  second.     Nevertheless  the  latter  is  of  great 

*  Forest  Service  Circular,  No.  163. 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION 


215 


importance  because  of  its  moderately  fast  growth  and  high  yield, 
and  because  the  two  principal  species  are  of  value:  the  poplar 
for  pulpwood  and  excelsior,  the  birch  for  spools  and  other  uses. 

The  fact  that  relatively  small-sized  trees  are  merchantable 
and  that  the  type  can,  therefore,  be  grown  on  a  short  rotation 
adds  to  its  value. 

6.  Old  Field.  —  Scattered  around  the  borders  of  the  region 
and  in  the  main  valleys  which  penetrate  the  interior  are  occa- 


Fig.  74.  —  The  old  field  spruce  type,  showing  a  young  fully  stocked  stand. 

sional  areas  which  were  cleared  and  used  for  farms  and  pas- 
tures. Many  of  these  lands  are  now  unused  and  have  seeded 
up  to  forest. 

Lands  in  this  condition  are  classed  in  the  old  field  type  because 
their  forest  growth  differs  widely  from  that  found  elsewhere. 
The  stands  are  usually  even-aged  like  those  of  the  birch  and 
poplar  type,  and  contain  trees  which  are  usually  exceedingly 
limby.  Some  stands  have  already  reached  merchantable  size, 
but  the  majority  contain  young  timber. 

A  variety  of  species  is  found;  red  and  white  spruce,  white 
pine,  balsam,  white  cedar  (in  northern  Vermont),  hard  maple, 


2l6  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

birch,  and  poplar  may  all  be  found  on  this  class  of  land,  usually 
in  pure  or  nearly  pure  stands.  Red  spruce  is  the  most  common 
tree.  The  soils  here  are  of  medium  to  good  quality  and  the 
growth  correspondingly  rapid.  Where  spruce  forms  the  stand 
the  growth  will  often  average  a  cord  of  pulpwood  per  acre  per 
year.  For  example,  one  acre  of  spruce  of  the  old  field  type, 
measured  in  New  Hampshire,  gave  the  following  figures: 

Age  of  the  stand 65  years 

Height  of  the  stand 60  to  65  feet 

Number  of  trees  5  inches  or  over  in  diameter 627 

Cutting  to  a  4-inch  top  the  yield  was  69  cords  of  stacked  pulpwood. 
Growth  per  year  69  -^  65  =  1.06  cords. 

Stands  yielding  40,000  to  50,000  feet,  board  measure,  per  acre 
are  sometimes  found. 

The  type  has  the  smallest  area  of  any  in  the  region,  and  is 
relatively  more  abundant  in  Vermont  than  elsewhere. 

Methods  of  Handling  the  Forest. 

In  forestry  work  throughout  New  England  and  especially  in 
the  spruce  region,  measures  best  for  the  forest  from  the  theoreti- 
cal standpoint  often  cannot  be  undertaken,  owing  to  obstacles 
of  a  practical  nature.  The  forester  directs  his  efforts  to  securing 
continuous  crops  of  timber  on  the  land  and  to  increasing  the 
productive  power  of  the  forest,  but  frequently  the  distance  from 
markets  and  poor  facilities  for  the  sale  of  timber  force  him  to 
employ  some  method  not  altogether  the  best  for  the  good  of 
the  forest.  His  work  is  often  a  compromise  between  an  ideal 
system  and  methods  the  lumberman  has  found  practicable. 
The  intention  in  these  pages  is  to  advise  measures  which  are 
practicable,  and  at  the  same  time  improve  the  condition  of  the 
forest. 

The  object  of  forest  management  in  the  spruce  region  is  in 
general  the  production  of  spruce.  This  is  the  tree  to  favor  over 
all  others.  Occasionally  in  special  types  of  forest  other  trees 
should  be  favored,  but  such  cases  are  in  the  minority. 


THE    SPRUCE   REGION  217 

Intensive  methods  of  management  are  here  usually  out  of 
the  question  owing  to  the  unsettled  state  of  the  region. 

Since  the  management  for  the  different  types  is  often  dis- 
similar it  will  be  best  to  consider  the  types  separately. 

Spruce  Slope.  —  The  forest  of  this  type,  it  will  be  remembered, 
lies  on  steep  slopes  with  shallow  soil,  where  it  is  exposed  to  great 
danger  from  the  wind.  The  situation  often  would  make  it  ad- 
visable to  hold  these  stands  untouched,  or  at  most  culled  only 
of  a  very  few  of  the  largest  trees,  as  protection  forests  for  the 
upper  watersheds  of  New  England's  important  streams.  But 
the  spruce  slope  contains  a  great  deal  of  valuable  timber,  which, 
when  conservatively  cut,  can  be  harvested  without  destroying 
the  protective  power  of  the  forest.^ 

How  shall  this  be  done?  For  two  reasons  the  use  of  the 
selection  system  in  the  spruce  slope  type  appears  to  be  out  of  the 
question.  First,  because  the  stands  are  comparatively  even- 
aged,  and  of  such  density  that  the  culling  out  of  the  bigger  trees 
here  and  there  results  in  heavy  damage  through  windfall  of 
trees  standing  next  to  those  cut.  Second,  because  the  cost  of 
logging  timber  on  steep  slopes  far  from  the  lower  valleys  is  high 
and  a  considerable  quantity  of  timber  per  acre  (more  than  would 
be  secured  under  the  system  of  selection)  must  be  cut  in  order 
to  make  a  paying  operation. 

Some  system  of  clear  cutting  must  be  used.  But  it  must 
radically  differ  from  the  ruthless  slashing  and  complete  clearing 
of  timber,  now  being  made  on  steep  slopes  by  many  lumber 
companies.  The  clear-cutting  system  when  skillfully  applied 
is  of  great  use  and  the  disastrous  results  which  have  followed  its 
use  in  northern  New  England,  especially  in  the  White  Moun- 
tains, are  due  to  its  wrongful  application  and  lack  of  protection 
from  fire  after  the  cutting. 

In  applying  the  clear-cutting  method  to  the  spruce  slope 
type,  clumps  of  seed  trees  can  often  be  selected  on  spots  which 
are  comparatively  safe  from  windfall.      (Clear-cutting  system 

^  There  are  many  scrubby  and  unmerchantable  stands  at  high  elevations  which 
should  be  retained  always  uncut  as  protection  forests. 


2l8 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


reserving  groups  of  trees.  See  chapter  on  silvicultural  systems.) 
On  a  slope  intersected  with  small  gullies  and  ravines,  the  seed 
trees  should  be  located  on  the  higher  ground  where  the  seed  can 
be  scattered  over  the  ground  below.  The  greater  part  of  the 
stand  is  cut  clear,  leaving  these  clumps  of  trees  to  scatter  seed 
over  the  clear-cut  area.  An  ideal  arrangement  would  be  to  have 
two  or  three  trees  in  a  clump  on  each  acre,  but  frequently  the 


By  permission  oj  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

Fig.  75.  —  The  result  of  leaving  scattered  trees  in  exposed  positions  is  seen  in  these  wind- 
falls.    Spruce  slope  type. 


groups  must  be  bigger  than  this,  for  their  own  protection,  and 
are  accordingly  farther  apart.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  to 
have  the  groups  large  enough  to  withstand  wind,  as  they  will 
frequently  have  to  be  left  on  top  of  knolls  and  ridges.  Usually 
a  few  firmly-rooted  trees  can  be  found  if  time  is  taken  to  look  for 
them. 

It  is  often  unnecessary  to  leave  large  merchantable  trees  as 
seed  trees,  because  clumps  of  middle-aged  trees  capable  of  bear- 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION  219 

ing  seed  can  be  found  here  and  there,  which  make  excellent 
seed  trees.  Where  such  a  clump  is  left  there  should  be  no 
cutting  within  the  group,  not  even  the  removal  of  a  single  tree; 
as  any  breaks  in  the  cover  expose  the  other  trees  to  wind  throw. 

Groups  of  young  growth  often  contain  a  few  old  trees,  and 
where  the  young  growth  is  left  the  old  trees  among  them  also 
should  be  uncut,  unless  they  are  dead  or  dying. 

Where  the  spruce  slope  type  occupies  but  a  small  space  among 
other  types,  seed  trees  can  sometimes  be  left  on  the  edge  of  the 
slope. 

The  timber  left  in  the  clumps  of  seed  trees  may  range  from 
almost  nothing  of  commercial  value  to,  in  rare  cases,  twenty  or 
twenty-live  per  cent  of  the  merchantable  stand.  Whatever  is 
left  as  seed  trees  remains  for  a  forest  generation,  until  the  new 
reproduction  is  mature. 

Another  form  of  the  clear-cutting  system  can  sometimes  be 
applied,  described  as  follows:  about  one- third  of  the  forest  is 
left  uncut,  in  the  form  of  large,  irregular-shaped  patches,  or  in 
strips,  running  usually  up  and  down  the  slope.  These  patches 
or  strips  furnish  seed  which  is  blown  over  the  cut  area.  The 
reserve  groups  are  an  investment  to  be  left  for  future  cutting. 
The  bodies  of  uncut  timber  should  be  located  either  above  or  to 
the  windward  of  cut-over  areas  and  near  enough  for  the  seed  to 
reach  all  parts  of  the  area. 

Spruce  seed  often  falls  on  the  snow  and  may  slide  along  the 
crust  for  a  considerable  distance.  The  distances  between  the 
patches  of  standing  timber  should  never  exceed  five  hundred 
feet  and  much  better  reproduction  will  be  secured  with  half  this 
distance.  When  reproduction  has  been  secured  the  remaining 
timber  is  cut  in  a  separate  operation.  This  would  take  place 
about  ten  to  fifteen  years  after  the  first  cutting.  To  obtain 
reproduction  on  the  strips  it  will  be  necessary  to  leave  scattered 
clumps  of  seed  trees  in  safe  positions.  The  advantage  of  this 
strip  system  over  that  of  leaving  clumps  of  seed  trees  is  that 
greater  protection  from  the  wind  is  secured,  and  reproduction 
is  made  more  certain.     But  it  requires  two  logging  operations, 


220 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW   ENGLAND 


which,  in  the  very  steepest  regions  and  farther  from  markets, 
often  may  be  impracticable. 

Some  stands  in  the  spruce  slope  type  have  a  full  reproduction 
already  on  the  ground  when  cut.  This  reproduction  may  be 
either  spruce  or  balsam,  but  is  apt  to  contain  more  balsam  than 
spruce.     Usually  there  is  some  spruce  with  the  balsam.     In  such 


By  permission  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

Fig.  76.  —  Pure  stand  of  conifers  cut  over  twice  in  twenty  years  and  still  in  good  growing 

condition.     On  the  right  is  a  stump  of  the  first  cutting  and  in  left  center  one  of  the 

second  cutting. 

stands,  where  reproduction  is  already  present,  the  cutting  can 
remove  all  the  trees  of  merchantable  size  and  allow  the  repro- 
duction to  develop. 

Spruce  Flat.  —  The  forest  of  the  spruce  flat  type  is  apt  to  be 
more  uneven-aged  and  to  contain  a  greater  number  of  species 
than  that  of  the  spruce  slope.  In  places  where  the  soil  is  rocky 
and  shallow,  there  may  be  considerable  danger  of  windfall;  and 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION 


in  such  portions  of  the  type  the  method  of  clear  cutting  carried 
out  as  in  the  slope  type  is  advisable. 

Much  of  the  spruce  flat  country,  however,  is  not  in  great 
danger  of  windfall.  Here  the  selection  system  of  cutting  works 
admirably.  The  forest  is  suited  to  such  a  system  by  its  uneven- 
aged  character,  and  the  location  of  the  type  relatively  near  the 
main  streams,  together  with  its  comparatively  gentle  topog- 
raphy, makes  it  possible  to  take  out  scattered  timber  at  a  profit. 


Fig.  77.  —  A  carefully  made  cutting  in  which  a  number  of  large  hardwoods  were  removed 
without  injury  to  the  understory  of  young  conifers. 

Under  the  selection  system  as  applied  here  a  cutting  is  to  be 
made  at  intervals,  which  takes  out  the  larger  and  less  thrifty 
trees.  The  cutting  can  most  easily  be  controlled  by  establish- 
ing a  diameter  limit  below  which  size  (theoretically)  no  trees 
are  to  be  cut,  and  above  which  all  trees  are  to  be  cut.  For  spruce 
a  diameter  limit  lying  between  ten  and  fourteen  inches  at  breast 
height  is  the  best.  An  arbitrary  limit  must  not  be  strictly 
adhered  to.  Where  the  timber  is  all  of  large  size  for  several 
acres,  cutting  exactly  to  a  limit  might  strip  the  land,  and  there- 
fore a  clump  of  trees  should  be  selected  and  left  to  furnish  seed, 


222  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

even  though  they  may  be  above  the  hmit  in  diameter.  On  the 
other  hand,  injured  or  suppressed  trees  frequently  are  seen,  be- 
low the  limit  in  size,  which  are  unthrifty  and  growing  very 
slowly  if  at  all.  Such  unproductive  trees  ought  to  be  cut,  what- 
ever their  size,  unless  needed  to  scatter  seed. 

The  diameter  hmit  is  thus  "elastic,"  permitting  the  cutting 
of  some  trees  above  and  some  below  the  limit. 

Where  the  forest  is  of  the  typical  uneven-aged  form  it  will  be 
possible  to  return  to  the  sarhe  areas  and  cut  again  after  an 
interval  of  ten  to  thirty  years;  the  interval  depending  on  the 
amount  of  the  first  cut. 

A  difficulty  often  met  with  in  handling  this  type,  as  well  as  the 
other  spruce  types,  is  the  presence  of  balsam.  This  tree  repro- 
duces so  well  that  it  may  become  a  strong  competitor  with  the 
spruce.  On  account  of  its  lower  value  for  lumber  and  pulpwood 
it  should  be  discriminated  against  in  favor  of  the  spruce.^  Where 
the  cutting  is  made  on  the  selection  system  this  discrimination 
may  be  effected  by  cutting  balsam  to  a  lower  diameter  limit  than 
spruce.  This  limit  should  be  as  low  as  the  market  conditions  on 
any  given  tract  allow. 

Swamp.  —  The  method  of  handling  this  type  is  the  same  as 
for  the  spruce  flats.  Wherever  danger  from  windfall  is  great 
(as  is  the  case  over  a  great  part  of  the  swamp  type) ,  or  occasion- 
ally where  a  dense,  nearly  even-aged  growth  occurs,  the  stand 
must  be  cut  nearly  clear,  making  provision  for  clumps  of  seed 
trees,  and  where  the  stand  is  comparatively  safe  from  wind  the 
selection  system  may  be  used.  In  a  great  many  instances  repro- 
duction will  be  found  already  started  before  the  cutting  is  made. 
Here,  even  if  the  stand  is  cut  clear,  a  good  second  crop  will  be 
insured  without  leaving  trees  for  seed. 

From  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  years,  depending  on  the 
quality  of  the  site,  are  needed  to  produce  yields  of  saw  timber 
on  the  swamp,  spruce  slope  and  flat  types. 

^  The  rapid  growth  of  the  balsam  in  part  compensates  for  its  lower  value. 
Eventually,  as  the  market  for  bajsam  becomes  better,  it  may  merit  the  same  or  even 
greater  attention  than  spruce. 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION  223 

Hardwood.  —  Here  a  condition  exists  radically  different  from 
that  in  the  other  three  permanent  types.  The  large  number 
of  hardwood  trees  makes  it  difficult  for  the  spruce  to  reproduce 
abundantly,  because  the  leaves  of  the  hardwoods  form  a  thick 
cover  on  the  ground  which  is  very  unfavorable  for  the  germi- 
nation of  spruce  seed. 

In  past  lumbering  operations  the  merchantable  spruce  has 
been  cut  and  most  of  the  hardwoods  left  standing.  Under  such 
treatment  the  reproduction  following  cutting  is  of  hardwood 
species,  and  spruce  may  entirely  disappear. 

Just  the  opposite  policy  must  be  pursued  to  secure  an  increased 
amount  of  spruce  in  the  second  crop:  that  is  to  say,  the  hard- 
woods must  be  heavily  cut  and  numerous  spruce  seed  trees 
allowed  to  remain.  This  cutting  should  be  in  the  nature  of  a 
selection  cutting,  taking  out  the  hardwood  trees  down  to  the 
smallest  merchantable  size,  and  cutting  only  the  spruce  above 
a  certain  large  diameter,  such  as  fourteen  inches,  breast-high 
(four  and  a  half  feet  from  the  ground) .  This  must  be  supplement- 
ed by  leaving  spruce  trees  above  this  limit  where  cutting  exactly 
to  the  limit'would  remove  all  seed  trees.  Provision  must  in  this 
way  be  made  to  leave  at  least  two  seed  trees  per  acre. 

As  yet  the  hardwoods  are  not  salable  throughout  the  entire 
region,  owing  to  the  expense  of  transporting  the  heavy  hardwood 
logs  to  market.  Near  railroads  they  can  be  profitably  handled, 
but  in  the  remote  sections  it  is  often  impossible  to  cut  the  hard- 
woods. On  such  lands  it  may  be  impossible  to  secure  spruce 
reproduction,  and  hardwood  will  take  the  place  of  the  spruce  as 
it  is  cut.  To  prevent  this  change  in  the  type  it  sometimes  is 
advisable  to  defer  cutting  of  the  spruce  a  few  years,  until  trans- 
portation facihties  improve  sufficiently  to  make  possible  the 
close  utilization  of  the  hardwoods.  Sometimes  a  plant  utilizing 
hardwoods  may  be  estabhshed  and  solve  the  problem. 

The  treatment  so  far  suggested  for  the  hardwood  type  is 
based  on  the  assumption  that  an  increased  amount  of  spruce 
at  once  is  wanted  in  the  type;  and  such  is  silviculturally  the  best 
poHcy.     But  from  the  financial  standpoint  it  may  be  best  to  give 


224 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


up  for  the  present  the  idea  of  getting  more  spruce  on  these  lands 
and  to  work  for  the  hardwoods.  The  following  facts  lead  to  this 
conclusion:  prices  for  hardwood  logs  have  not  risen  proportion- 
ately with  the  advance  in  coniferous  logs;  the  latter  now  com- 
mand prices  which  are  about  maximum  and  in  which  relatively 
little  advance  may  be  anticipated  within  the  coming  decade. 
The  prices  of  hardwood  logs,  on  the  other  hand,  have  been 


Fig.  78.  —  A  combined  selection  cutting  and  thinning  in  an  old  field  spruce  stand. 

relatively  low,  but  are  now  advancing,  and  within  ten  years 
should  rise  to  a  much  higher  level. 

In  expectation  of  such  an  advance  it  may  often  be  advisable 
to  refrain  from  cutting  hardwoods  for  the  next  ten  years.  This 
would  apply  even  to  overmature  trees,  which  are  not  putting 
on  growth  in  volume,  because  the  growth  in  value  per  unit  of 
their  present  lumber  content  will  more  than  pay  for  their  lack 
of  volume  increase. 

Badly  diseased  and  deteriorating  hardwood  trees,  together 
with  the  biggest  and  most  unthrifty  of  the  spruce,  might  have  to 
be  removed  in  a  light  cutting,  leaving  the  remainder  of  the  stand 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION 


225 


for  at  least  a  decade.  Undoubtedly  hardwood  reproduction 
would  stock  the  gaps  made  in  this  cutting;  but  the  question  of 
whether  or  not  to  try  for  spruce  reproduction  in  the  type  would 
be  deferred  for  ten  or  more  years. 

In  cuttings  in  the  hardwood  type  there  need  be  no  loss  from 
windfall  due  to  leaving  scattered  spruce  trees  for  seed.  On  the 
deep,  fertile  soil  of  the  hardwood  land  the  spruce  itself  develops 


Fig.  79.  —  A  selection  cutting  taking  out  the  most  limby  trees  combined  witli  a  thinning, 
removing  the  spindling  and  badly  crowded  individuals.  This  is  another  portion  of 
the  old  field  spruce  stand  shown  in  Fig.  78. 


a  more  secure  root  system  than  on  other  sites,  and,  more  im- 
portant still,  one  or  two  hardwood  trees  can  be  left  close  to  the 
spruce  seed  trees  and  will  support  the  latter  against  the  wind. 

From  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  are  needed  to 
produce  saw  timber.  The  most  profitable  treatment  of  the  type 
in  the  long  run  would  be  to  cut  clear  and  plant  to  conifers.  But 
it  is  usually  impracticable,  owing  to  the  impossibility  of  disposing 
of  the  poorer  hardwoods.  Where  the  markets  are  sufficiently 
good  to  allow  cutting  the  stand  clear  and  putting  the  poor  hard- 
woods into  cordwood,  clear  cutting  and  planting  are  advisable. 


226  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

Old  Field  Spruce.  —  The  stands  in  this  type  are  extremely 
dense  with  closely  interlocked  crowns,  and  fairly  even-aged. 
Since  these  stands,  as  already  stated,  occur  chiefly  on  the  borders 
of  the  region  and  near  settlements,  they  can  be  handled  more 
intensively  than  those  of  the  other  types. 

One  of  the  best  systems  of  treatment  will  be  the  clear-cutting 
system  with  replanting.  Under  this  system  the  stand  would  be 
allowed  to  grow  until  fifty  to  seventy-five  years  of  age,  when  it 
would  be  cut  clear,  the  brush  burned,  and  the  area  replanted.^ 
The  greater  part  of  the  material  can  be  sold  for  pulpwood,  as 
straight  sticks  can  be  taken  down  to  a  three-inch  top.  For  pulp- 
wood  a  lower  rotation  can  be  used  than  for  saw  timber,  which 
requires  at  least  seventy-five  years.  Such  treatment  is  espe- 
cially adapted  to  tracts  of  small  size,  where  comparatively  httle 
timber  is  found  and  it  is  desirable  to  harvest  this  at  one  time. 
Reproduction  of  spruce  is  absolutely  assured  by  this  system. 

On  tracts  of  some  size  the  strip  method  of  clear  cutting  can 
be  used,  with  strips  not  over  one  hundred  feet  in  width.  Seed- 
ing is  secured  from  the  adjoining  stands.  The  last  strip  to  be  cut 
must  be  restocked  by  some  other  method.  The  danger  in  this 
method  is  that  other  species  may  seed  in  ahead  of  the  spruce,  and 
where  this  is  especially  to  be  feared  the  land  should  be  cut  and 
artificially  restocked. 

Still  another  method,  an  adaptation  of  the  shelterwood  system, 
can  be  used  to  advantage,  when  it  is  desired  to  insure  the  natural 
reproduction  of  spruce.  Under  this  method  a  heavy  cutting, 
removing  about  one-third  of  the  volume,  is  made  throughout  the 
forest.  Theoretically  this  should  remove  the  poorer  individuals, 
single  trees,  scattered  here  and  there  through  the  stand.  An  old- 
field  spruce  stand,  however,  is  not  adapted  for  such  a  system  of 
cutting  because  of  the  thickly  interlacing  crowns,  which  make 
the  felling  of  single  trees  a  laborious  and  expensive  operation. 
Instead,  then,  of  cutting  scattered  trees,  narrow  alleyways, 
possibly  ten  feet  in  width,  are  cut  through  the  stand,  leaving 

1  The  Norway  spruce,  a  European  variety,  should  be  planted  rather  than  the 
native  red  spruce.     The  former  grows  much  faster  and  yields  excellent  pulpwood. 


THE    SPRUCE   REGION 


227 


belts  approximately  twenty  feet  wide,  uncut.  This  removes 
one-third  of  the  timber  and  has  the  effect  of  admitting  light  to 
the  forest  floor.  The  result  of  this  increased  light  is  that  spruce 
seedlings  spring  up  in  the  alleyways  and  under  the  standing  trees. 


^-  '  '  i  .l^t  "S^ 


^ 


•^i^t 


-:^ 


Fig.  80.  —  Reproduction  on  a  small  cutting  in  the  old  field  spruce  type 

Within  ten  years  a  good  reproduction  should  have  started,  and 
the  old  timber  can  then  be  cut  clear. 

In  cutting  the  trees  in  the  strips  they  can  all  be  easily  felled 
into  and  hauled  out  along  the  alleyways.  A  good  yield  of  pulp- 
wood  results,  which  makes  the  operation  profitable  financially 
as  well  as  silviculturally. 

This  system  was  devised  and  first  tried  in  1903,  by  T.  S.  Wool- 
sey,  Jr.,  on  a  New  Hampshire  tract,  with  satisfactory  results; 


228  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

spruce  and  balsam  seedlings  stocking  the  ground  thoroughly  at 
the  end  of  five  years.  The  cutting  in  this  particular  instance 
was  tried  as  a  method  of  thinning  old-field  spruce  stands  to  se- 
cure increased  growth  of  the  remaining  trees.  So  far  no  increased 
growth  has  resulted,  and,  as  a  method  of  thinning,  therefore,  the 
system  is  apt  to  be  a  failure,  as  spruce  of  this  character  fails  to 
respond  appreciably  to  the  increased  light.  This  may  reason- 
ably be  explained  as  due  to  the  severe  crowding  which  the  indi- 
vidual trees  in  the  stand  underwent  for  a  long  period  of  years 
previous  to  the  thinning.  If  the  strip  cutting  is  made  compara- 
tively early,  —  before  the  thirtieth  year,  and  before  the  trees 
have  suffered  serious  crowding,  —  increased  growth  might  be 
expected  to  follow. 

The  age  of  this  stand  was  fifty-two  years.  Thirty-eight  per 
cent  of  the  volume  was  removed  in  the  first  cutting,  or  thirteen 
stacked  cords  of  pulpwood  per  acre.  This  was  disposed  of  at  a 
net  profit  of  about  <S2.oo  per  cord,  making  a  handsome  return  per 
acre  on  the  operation. 

Birch  and  Poplar.  —  The  treatment  advisable  for  this  type 
depends  on  whether  the  object  is  to  keep  the  tyjDc  as  it  is  or  to 
transform  it  to  one  of  the  four  permanent  types.  It  has  been 
already  stated  that  where  coniferous  seed  trees  are  in  the  vicinity 
the  stands  of  birch  and  poplar  become  stocked  with  coniferous 
seedlings,  which  develop  and  finally  dominate  the  type.  If 
birch  and  poplar  are  considered  more  profitable  than  spruce  and 
balsam,  an  effort  should  be  made  to  maintain  the  temporary 
type.  Otherwise  the  change  into  one  of  the  spruce  types  would 
be  preferable. 

It  should  be  wholly  a  financial  question  and  conifers  or  poplar 
and  birch  favored  accordingly.  In  case  spruce  and  balsam  are  to 
be  favored,  the  birch  and  poplar  should  be  cut  clear,  taking  care 
to  spare  all  coniferous  seedlings  which  may  have  started.  The 
mature  conifers  should  be  left  uncut  to  serve  as  seed  trees,  to 
seed  up  such  areas  as  are  still  unstocked.  Such  treatment  will 
often  turn  the  type  at  once  into  a  good  coniferous  stand. 

Where  it  is  desired  to  have  birch  and  poplar  reproduce,  a  clear- 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION  229 

cutting  method  must  be  used  and,  if  seedling  reproduction  is 
desired,  special  provision  must  be  made  to  have  the  seed  bed  in 
best  condition  for  the  germination  of  these  two  species.  They 
both  need  exposed  mineral  soil  and  plenty  of  light  for  satis- 
factory reproduction.  To  secure  such  a  condition  on  the  clear- 
cut  areas  it  will  be  best  to  burn  the  brush  and  ground  cover. 
This  can  be  done  by  allowing  fire  to  run  over  the  whole  area.  In 
burning  over  the  area  great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  fire  to  adjoining  stands.  Lines  fifteen  to  twenty-five 
feet  wide  should  be  cleared  of  all  inflammable  material  on  the 
edges,  and,  if  the  tract  to  be  burned  is  a  large  one,  at  intervals 
across  it.  Then  the  burning  should  be  done  against  the  wind 
on  a  still  day  in  damp  weather,  with  a  sufficient  force  of  men  at 
hand  to  control  its  spread. 

The  seedling  reproduction  on  these  burned-over  areas  must  be 
secured  from  belts  or  patches  of  uncut  timber  along  the  sides  of 
the  cutting,  or  an  occasional  seed  tree  left  on  the  cut-over  area. 
All  conifers  to  the  lowest  merchantable  size  should  be  removed. 
What  seedlings  and  saplings  remain  will  be  destroyed  in  burning, 
and  the  site  left  free  for  birch  and  poplar. 

Instead  of  depending  on  seedhngs  for  reproduction  it  may  be 
secured  by  sprouts  in  the  case  of  the  birch  and  by  root  suckers 
in  the  case  of  the  poplar.  This  is  really  the  coppice  system, 
which  consists  of  cutting  the  stand  clear  and  allowing  the  sprouts 
from  the  old  stumps  to  make  the  second  crop.  The  stand  must 
be  cut  when  not  over  fifty  to  sixty  years  of  age  for  birch,  as  above 
that  age  birch  sprouts  poorly  (see  Forest  Service  Circular, 
No.  163);  for  poplar,  when  fifty  to  seventy  years  of  age.  This 
system  could  not  be  used  without  burning  where  a  dense  conifer- 
ous undergrowth  was  present,  as  the  conifers  would  suppress  a 
majority  of  the  sprouts  or  root  suckers. 

A  light  fire  will  not  completely  destroy  the  power  of  the  birch 
stumps  to  sprout,  although  it  weakens  them.  Poplar  root 
suckers  will  start  even  when  the  stump  has  been  quite  badly 
burned.  A  fire  in  the  summertime  injures  the  sprouting  capac- 
ity of  both  species. 


230  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

As  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  get  rid  of  the  other  species,  in 
order  to  secure  pure  or  nearly  pure  stands  of  birch  and  poplar, 
burning  must  be  used.  This  should  be  done  preferably  in  the 
late  spring  or  early  fall   and  never  in  the  summer.     Winter, 


By  Permission  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

Fig.  81.  —  Old  field  spruce  type.     Stand  just  after  a  strip  tliinning. 

theoretically,  would  be  the  safest  time  to  burn,  but  snow  prevents 
clean  burning  at  that  time.  ,  Where  a  mixture  of  seedlings  is 
wanted  with  the  root  suckers,  the  fire  must  be  set  when  the 
ground  is  free  from  snow  and  the  litter  is  not  too  dry  to  burn. 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION  23 1 

Such  a  fire  will  necessarily  be  hotter  than  a  spring  or  fall  fire  and 
do  more  damage  to  the  stumps. 

The  rotation  for  the  birch  and  poplar  type  should  lie  between 
forty  and  seventy-five  years.  If  left  longer  than  eighty  years, 
stands  containing  much  poplar  will  rapidly  decrease  in  mer- 
chantable content,  because  poplar  matures  usually  before  that 
time.  Paper  birch  also  is  a  short-hved  tree,  though  a  little 
longer  lived  than  poplar,  and  like  poplar  deteriorates  rapidly 
after  maturity.  If  the  stands  are  composed  of  sprouts  and  root 
suckers  the  age  of  maturity  comes  a  few  years  earlier  and  rota- 
tions of  sixty  years  or  under  are  advisable. 

Planting.  —  Planting  as  yet  is  not  an  important  branch  of 
management  in  the  spruce  region  of  New  England,  nor  will  it 
ever  take  the  position  which  it  holds  in  some  other  forest  regions. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  natural  reproduction  of  the  valuable 
species  is  so  abundant  that  the  necessity  for  artificial  restocking 
of  cut-over  lands  does  not  ordinarily  arise.  Lands  once  cleared 
for  agriculture  and  then  later  left  idle  and  requiring  planting  to 
become  productive  are  insignificant  in  area. 

Occasionally  very  heavily  cut  lands  and  burns  which  have 
failed  to  reproduce  or  have  become  stocked  with  worthless  species 
oft'er  opportunities  for  planting.^  Very  little  planting  of  such 
lands  has  been  done  up  to  the  present  time.  When  the  advis- 
ability of  making  all  lands  productive  and  replacing  poor  with 
valuable  species  is  better  realized  planting  will  be  adopted.  As 
yet  the  sentiment  in  favor  of  planting,  except  on  old  fields  in  the 
Vermont  section,  is  little  developed. 

The  best  species  to  plant  for  general  purposes  is  the  Norway 
spruce,  on  account  of  its  rapid  growth  (more  rapid  than  red 
spruce)  and  ease  with  which  it  is  raised  in  a  nursery.  Its  wood 
is  also  valuable  for  pulp  or  timber.  White  spruce  should  also 
be  used  and  white  pine  and  Norway  pine  in  the  lower  elevations 
of  the  type.  The  latter  is  nearly  as  rapid  in  growth  as  white 
pine,  will  endure  poorer  soils,  and  is  a  tree  immune  from  danger- 

1  Earlier  in  the  chapter  planting  has  been  recommended  for  use  in  reproducing 
stands  of  the  old  field  s[)ruce  tjpe. 


232  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

ous  insect  and  fungous  enemies.  For  information  in  regard  to 
the  silvical  habits  of  these  species  see  Chapter  III. 

Avoiding  Waste  in  the  Woods.  —  Ten  to  fifteen  years  ago  there 
was  a  large  amount  of  waste  in  the  logging  operations  of  the 
spruce  region — waste  of  timber,  not  only  according  to  the  possi- 
bilities of  utilization  to-day  but  also  of  material  which  was  then 
merchantable,  and  of  young  trees  in  thrifty  growing  condition. 

Conditions  have  greatly  improved  in  recent  years,  due  to  the 
increased  use  of  spruce  and  balsam  in  smaller  sizes  for  pulp,  and 
also  to  the  fact  that  operators  are  more  careful  to  avoid  unneces- 
sary waste  in  the  material  cut  and  to  young  standing  timber. 
However,  on  many  operations  there  is  still  abundant  opportunity 
for  further  improvement  along  this  line. 

The  principal  ways  in  which  material  is  wasted  in  the  woods 
are: 

1.  In  cutting  high  stumps.     (Stumps  should  be  cut  down  to 

where  the  swelling  of  the  roots  begins.) 

2.  In  not  cutting  trees  to  smallest  possible  diameter  in  the 

tops. 

3.  In  failure  to  utilize  windfalls,  and  dead  and  dying  trees 

containing  merchantable  material. 

4.  In  destroying  promising  young  growth  either  to  make  the 

work  of  logging  easier  or  for  use  in  construction  of  skid- 
ways,  bridges,  etc. 

In  considering  the  subject  of  waste  great  weight  must  be  given 
to  the  logging  and  market  problem  of  each  particular  tract. 
For  example,  on  one  tract  it  may  be  possible  to  utilize  trees  to 
a  three-inch  top,  while  on  another  tract  six  inches  is  the  lowest 
possible  limit.  Hence,  if  seven  inches  is  the  present  average 
cutting  limit  in  the  tops  on  both  tracts,  the  amount  wasted  in 
the  tops  is  vastly  different  in  the  two  cases. 

Thus,  in  studying  the  amount  of  waste  no  standard  for  the 
region  should  be  taken.  For  each  particular  operation  there 
should  be   an    investigation    made   of   what   there    constitutes 


THE   SPRUCE  REGION  233 

"waste  in  the  woods,"  and  then  attention  given  to  improving 
the  woods  work  so  that  this  waste  is  eliminated. 

The  terms  "avoidable"  and  "unavoidable"  waste  might  be 
employed  to  advantage;  their  use  being  illustrated  by  the  follow- 
ing example:  On  very  steep  slopes  it  is  often  necessary  in  re- 
moving the  big  trees  to  cut  all  the  young  growth,  so  that  the  logs 
may  be  rolled  down  to  the  log  road.     Here  the  difficulties  of 


By  permission  of  the  U .  S.  Forest  Service. 

Fig.  82.  —  Old  field  spruce  type,  just  after  a  strip  thinning.      Looking  obliquely  across 
the  strips.     The  trees  have  not  been  trimmed  as  yet  nor  the  logs  taken  out. 

logging  prevent  the  saving  of  the  young  growth,  and  its  destruc- 
tion cannot  be  charged  as  avoidable  waste.  On  level  land 
the  big  trees  could  be  felled  and  snaked  out  without  serious 
injury  to  the  surrounding  young  growth,  and  there  destruction 
of  the  young  growth  is  plainly  avoidable  waste. 

Of  course,  every  timber  owner  desires  to  prevent  all  "avoid- 
able" waste.  If  he  is  not  now  doing  so  it  is  largely  through 
ignorance  of  the  loss,  so  far  as  merchantable  material  is  con- 


234  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

cerned.  This  applies  to  the  three  first  classes  of  waste  in  the 
woods.  Their  prevention  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  the  best 
practicable  utilization,  and  should  be  obtained  by  every  lumber- 
man and  demanded  by  every  timberland  owner  who  sells  timber. 

The  fourth  class  of  waste  covers  the  destruction  of  young 
growth.  Unless  an  owner  is  practicing  forestry  or  has  interest 
in  the  future  timber  value  of  his  holdings  he  may  not  care  to 
avoid  this  class  of  waste.  While  comparatively  few  owners  are 
now  practicing  forestry,  the  great  majority  are  interested  in  the 
future  timber  value  of  their  lands,  at  least  from  the  standpoint  of 
sale  value. 

The  "avoidable"  waste  in  the  destruction  of  young  growth  on 
a  logging  job  is  often  large.  Frequently  choppers  cut  down 
saplings  in  feUing  a  big  tree,  where  bending  them  aside  or  lopping 
off  an  interfering  limb  would  be  sufficient.  By  felling  trees 
away  from  groups  of  young  growth  waste  may  be  avoided. 
Oftentimes  several  young  trees  are  felled  to  facilitate  the  re- 
moval of  the  logs,  where,  by  a  Httle  care  or  by  sending  in  one 
horse  instead  of  two  for  the  log,  the  young  trees  could  be  saved. 

Probably  the  greatest  "avoidable"  waste  of  young  growth 
occurs  in  the  use  of  young  trees  for  skids,  corduroying  roads,  and 
the  construction  of  skidways  and  bridges.  Of  course  quantities 
of  material  are  needed  for  these  purposes,  and  this  must  come 
from  the  neighboring  forest.  But  it  is  in  many  cases  unnecessary 
to  use  thrifty  growing  trees  of  valuable  species  for  such  purposes, 
since  an  inferior  species  will  do  as  well.  In  some  cases  this  may 
involve  no  extra  cost  or  inconvenience.  In  most  cases  it  is 
likely  that  the  inferior  species  will  not  answer  the  purpose  quite 
as  well  as  the  tree  customarily  used,  but  the  owner  should  remem- 
ber that  the  young  growth  of  the  valuable  species  like  spruce 
represents  his  future  profits.  Rather  than  to  seriously  injure 
the  selhng  value  of  the  land  and  these  future  returns  it  is  advis- 
able to  substitute,  even  at  a  little  added  expense,  inferior  species 
for  valuable  young  growth,  for  use  as  skids,  etc. 

To  secure  complete  utilization  and  the  saving  of  young  growth 
in  logging  operations  inspection  is  necessary.     The  man  doing 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION 


235 


the  marking  and  inspecting  the  cutting  should  also  inspect  for 
all  classes  of  waste.  Frequent  inspection  with  regular  reports  to 
headquarters  will  serve  to  keep  the  logging  foremen  up  to  the 
mark. 


Fig.  &S.  —  Old  field  spruce  type.     Stand  5  years  after  a  strip  thinning.     Looking  down 
strip.    Note  that  crowns  have  not  closed.    Spruce  and  balsam  seedlings  on  the  ground. 


Logging  Methods,  Market  Conditions,  Industries, 
Ownership  or  Woodlands. 

Logging  Methods.  —  In  each  forest  region  distinctive  methods 
of  logging  have  been  developed,  suited  to  the  character  of  the 
forest  and  the  nature  of  the  country.     These  methods  of  logging 


236 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


have  been  tried  and  improved  upon  until  in  old  lumbered  regions, 
such  as  the  different  sections  of  New  England,  it  is  probable  that 
the  most  economical  system  has  been  developed.  To  make  any 
radical  change  in  methods  so  developed  and  long  used  would  be 


Fig.  84.  —  Old  field  spruce  type.  Stand  5  years  after  a  strip  thinning.  Looking 
across  the  strips.  The  fallen  trees  are  all  tops  or  dead  trees  too  small  for  pulp.  Note 
absence  of  brush. 


difficult;  and  as  the  method  of  logging  usually  has  a  vital  bearing 
on  the  possible  silvicultural  treatment  of  the  forest  it  becomes 
of  the  highest  importance  to  know  these  methods  and  their  effect 
either  as  helping  or  making  more  difficult  conservative  cutting. 
The  object  here  is  to  outHne  the  logging  methods,  especially  as 


THE  SPRUCE   REGION  237 

they  have  a  direct  silvicultural  bearing.  No  detailed  description 
or  comparative  discussion  of  the  methods  is  given. 

In  the  spruce  region  there  is  an  abundant  cover  of  snow  from 
November  until  late  spring.  As  will  be  seen,  the  logging  is  so 
arranged  as  to  make  use  of  the  snow  to  the  fullest  extent.  It  is 
a  very  favorable  thing  from  the  forestry  standpoint,  since  logging 
with  snow  on  the  ground  hurts  the  forest  far  less  than  logging  on 
bare  ground. 

The  beginning  of  a  logging  operation  is  made  in  the  woods  by 
the  felhng  crew.  The  trees  are  cut  down,  trimmed,  and  left  full 
length,  or  (in  some  cases)  they  are  sawn  into  logs.  These  logs  or 
trees  are  then  dragged  out  by  single  horses  or  double  teams. 
Where  the  trees  are  large  and  left  full  length  two  horses  are 
needed  to  haul  them.  Usually  several  logs  are  bunched  to- 
gether, and  then  the  front  ends  placed  on  a  rough  sled  with  the 
rear  ends  dragging.  The  logs  are  thus  taken  down  ("snaked") 
to  skidways  placed  beside  the  main  hauHng  road.  This  is  often 
called  "yarding"  the  logs.  Where  near  a  drivable  stream  they 
may  be  dragged  directly  to  its  bank  and  piled  or  rolled  in. 

From  the  silvicultural  standpoint  it  is  better  to  use  but  one 
horse  for  yarding,  as  the  single  horse  does  not  need  so  wide  a 
road  and  therefore  does  less  damage.  On  account  of  the  weight 
of  the  longer  sticks  it  is  not  always  possible  to  use  one  horse.  In 
any  case,  to  enable  the  team  to  reach  the  log,  a  lane  must  be  cut 
through  the  underbrush  and  young  growth.  When  carefully 
selected  these  lanes  can  avoid  the  best  groups  of  young  growth. 
The  lanes  or  skidding  trails  from  the  individual  trees  converge, 
running  into  one  another,  until  finally  one  or  two  main  trails  lead 
down  to  the  skidway.  This  network  of  skidding  trails,  while 
thoroughly  gridironing  the  land,  is  so  scattered,  and  each  trail  is 
in  itself  so  narrow,  that  the  destruction  of  the  young  growth  on 
the  trails  is  not  a  serious  injury.  This  appHes  to  cutting  on  the 
selection  system.  Where  the  cutting  is  very  heavy  approaching 
a  clear  cutting,  the  damage  may  be  considerable  but  cannot  well 
be  avoided. 

On  very  steep  slopes  it  may  be  impossible  to  drive  a  horse  to 


238 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


each  tree  and  the  logs  must  be  rolled  down  short  distances  to 
main  skidding  trails.  This  results  in  the  destruction  of  young 
growth  between  the  tree  and  the  skidding  trail. 


K^ 

'-^. 

^ 

li 

HrnKM^'' 

„,<" 

^\p^^ 

^sH^^^^ 

1 

1 

it 

ti 

^■^ 

[  :f  ^p 

■'■■0 

Fig.  85.  —  Old  field  spruce  type.  .Stand  5  yuars  after  thinning.  In  wet  soil  windfall 
is  apt  to  occur.  All  the  thrown  trees  in  this  picture  are  dead  ones  except  i  live 
7-inch  tree. 


Under  the  most  adverse  conditions,  however,  the  use  of  horses 
and  hand  labor  is  far  superior  from  a  silvicultural  standpoint 
to  the  use  of  machinery  such  as  steam  skidders  and  cable  sys- 
tems, in  removing  the  logs  from  the  stump  to  the  yards. 

Where  the  yarding  is  done  with  machinery  the  logs  have  to  be 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION  239 

hauled  in  by  wire  ropes  or  cables,  and  the  hauling  must  be  done 
in  practically  straight  lines  from  the  stump  to  the  yard.  This 
results  inevitably  in  the  breakage  of  much  young  growth,  es- 
pecially near  the  yard,  where  everything  may  be  destroyed. 

Oftentimes  the  cutting  and  yarding  of  the  timber  are  done  only 
after  snowfall.  When  this  is  the  case,  seedlings  growing  on  the 
smaller  skidding  trails  may  escape  entirely  uninjured  and  the 
loss  to  saplings  is  less.  At  the  present  time  the  tendency  is  to 
do  the  cutting  and  yarding  in  the  fall  before  there  is  much  snow 
on  the  ground.^ 

The  yarding  of  the  logs  onto  skidways  still  leaves  the  timber 
in  the  woods.  It  does  not  pay  to  drag  the  timber  great  dis- 
tances, and  it  is  desirable  that  the  haul  to  a  skidway  should  not 
exceed  one-quarter  of  a  mile. 

The  next  step  is  to  take  the  timber  from  the  yards  to  the  mills. 
Ordinarily,  the  mills  are  comparatively  large,  stationary,  well- 
equipped  plants,  located  on  railroad  lines,  on  rivers  navigable 
for  ocean-going  vessels,  or  at  falls  on  drivable  streams.  Many 
of  the  mills  are  outside  the  boundaries  of  the  spruce  region,  a 
hundred  miles  or  more  away  from  the  forest.  The  factor  which 
makes  possible  this  location  of  the  mills  distant  from  their  source 
of  supply  is  the  comprehensive  network  of  lakes,  ponds,  and 
drivable  streams,  covering  the  spruce  region,  especially  the 
Maine  section  of  the  region,  as  will  be  seen  by  a  glance  at  a 
large  scale  map  of  northern  New  England.  The  Connecticut  in 
New  Hampshire  and  Vermont,  the  Aroostook  in  New  Hampshire 
and  Maine,  the  Kennebec,  Penobscot,  and  St.  John  in  Maine 
are  the  important  outlets  for  this  water  system;  and  on  these 
streams,  at  falls  and  railroad  intersections,  the  principal  mills 
are  located. 

Owing  to  their  natural  advantages  and  to  the  thoroughness 
and  system  with  which  these  waterways  have  been  developed  for 
log  driving,  it  is  far  cheaper  to  locate  the  mills  well  outside  the 

^  In  logging  poplar  for  pulpwood  the  trees  are  cut  in  the  spring  and  early  sum- 
mer, when  they  peel  easiest.  As  the  logs  do  not  drive  well  they  are  transported 
on  sleds  or  railroads  to  the  mills  wherever  this  is  possible. 


240 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


forest  and  drive  the  logs  to  them  than  to  have  the  mills  within 
the  forest  and  ship  out  the  manufactured  product. 

In  portions  of  the  forest  close  to  a  drivable  stream  it  is  possible 
to  yard  the  logs  directly  to  the  stream  bank,  but  on  the  land 
further  back  it  is  necessary  to  haul  from  the  various  skidways  to 
the  stream.  These  skidways  are  always  located  on  the  main 
hauling  roads,  which  are  laid  out  very  carefully,  so  as  to  give 
a  continuous  level  or  down-grade  haul  to  the  stream.      They 


Fig.  86.  —  Old  field  spruce  type.  Stand  5  years  after  thinning.  W  here  the  cutting 
was  heavy  a  thick  growth  of  berry  bushes  sprang  up  preventing  the  reproduction  of 
softwoods. 

are  carefully  cleared  and  graded,  but  not  surfaced,  as  the  haul- 
ing is  to  be  done  on  the  snow.  When  the  winter's  snow  comes, 
these  roads  are  broken  out  and  iced  (sprinkled  with  water, 
which  freezes),  giving  a  smooth,  hard  surface  on  which  large 
loads  of  logs  can  be  hauled  by  a  single  team  of  horses.  The 
hauling  is  done  on  double-truck  sleds,  and  is  known  as  "two- 
sledding." 

The  logs  are  landed  on  the  bank  or  the  icy  floor  of  the  stream, 
to  remain  until  the  ice  breaks  up  in  the  spring,  when  they  are 
"driven "  down  to  the  mills.     Out  of  every  little  drivable  stream 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION  241 

and  pond  may  come  a  few  logs.  These  small  additions  accumu- 
late and  when  the  "drive"  reaches  the  main  river  it  may  total 
millions  of  feet. 

As  many  owners  of  logs  are  represented  in  the  drive  on  a  single 
large  stream  it  is  manifestly  impossible  to  keep  the  logs  owned 
by  each  man  separate.  To  save  expense,  log-driving  associa- 
tions have  been  incorporated,  whose  function  it  is  to  handle  all 
logs  on  a  drive  over  a  given  route,  and  charge  the  individual 
owner  pro  rata  on  the  amount  of  timber  driven.  Each  owner 
stamps  his  logs  with  a  distinctive  mark,  so  that  a  given  lot  of 
logs  can  be  sorted  out  from  the  others  whenever  desired.  The 
establishment  of  these  associations  has  been  instrumental  in 
lessening  the  cost  of  driving. 

Another  method  of  taking  logs  from  the  skidways  to  the  mill 
is  by  rail,  where  a  tract  is  conveniently  situated  with  reference 
to  an  established  railroad  line.  There  has  been  no  general  intro- 
duction of  logging  railroads,  built  especially  for  logging  purposes, 
as  is  frequently  the  case  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  There 
are,  however,  a  few  examples  of  logging  railroads  mainly  in  places 
where  river  driving  is  unusually  expensive,  or  impossible.  This 
method  of  transportation  for  softwood  logs  will  never,  under 
ordinary  conditions,  take  the  place  of  river  driving. 

The  natural  advantages  favoring  cheap  river  driving  are  one 
factor  but  not  the  only  one  against  construction  of  logging  rail- 
roads. Another  reason  is  that  the  stands  of  timber  do  not 
average  high  enough  per  acre  over  large  tracts  to  justify  railroad 
building.  Were  there  extensive  areas  to  be  stripped  clean  the 
stand  of  timber  might  be  heavy  enough  to  justify  such  an  invest- 
ment, but  with  the  selection  type  of  forest  prevaihng,  the  timber 
is  too  light  for  railroad  logging.  In  some  sections  of  the  United 
States  an  incentive  to  the  construction  of  a  logging  railroad  is 
found  in  the  fact  that  after  the  timber  is  cut  the  land  may  be 
used  for  agriculture  and  the  railroad  may  develop  into  an  ordi- 
nary common  carrier.  In  the  spruce  region  this  is  not  true, 
because  the  soil  is  essentially  forest  soil,  with  no  possibility  of 
extensive,  permanent  agriculture. 


242  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

One  silvicultural  advantage  of  the  presence  of  a  railroad  is  that 
it  enables  the  owner  to  market  his  hardwoods.  These  cannot  be 
driven  on  account  of  their  weight,  and  are,  therefore,  unmarket- 
able where  driving  is  the  only  method  of  transportation.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  railroad  nearby  tends  to  encourage  heavy  cutting 
and  even  the  stripping  of  the  land,  and  increases  the  danger  of 
fire.  Heavy  cutting  is  not  desirable  as  a  whole  in  the  spruce 
forest.  The  cheapness  of  the  logging,  where  river  driving  is 
used,  makes  it  possible,  even  in  the  case  of  a  small  cut  per  acre, 
to  leave  the  small  trees  standing  for  further  growth. 

In  the  Vermont  section  there  are  more  permanent  railroads  at 
present  and  hence  the  opportunities  for  rail  transportation  of 
logs  are  relatively  better  than  in  the  New  Hampshire  or  Maine 
sections. 

In  summary  it  may  be  said  that  the  presence  of  a  railroad  as 
a  common  carrier  is  desirable,  but  the  presence  of  special  logging 
railroads  with  their  demand  for  an  exceptionally  heavy  cutting 
is  a  disadvantage  from  a  forestry  standpoint.  A  railroad  of  the 
first  type  offers  the  owner  a  chance  to  sell  his  hardwoods,  but  as 
he  is  not  financially  interested  in  the  railroad,  and  as  the  railroad 
will  be  there  permanently  and  does  not  depend  on  log  carrying  for 
its  main  revenue,  there  is  no  insistent  pressure  to  strip  the  land. 

Market  Conditions.  —  The  spruce  region  is  essentially  a  timber- 
exporting  region.  The  lack  of  agricultural  land  and  the  scarcity 
of  its  permanent  population  prevent  any  large  internal  demand 
for  forest  products,  but  it  is  excellently  located  for  exporting 
purposes.  The  market  hes  naturally  to  the  south,  for  on  the 
north  is  the  Canadian  boundary,  with  a  rather  sparsely-settled 
country,  with  an  abundant  supply  of  spruce.  To  the  south  are 
the  numerous  manufacturing  cities  of  New  England,  and  the 
district  surrounding  New  York  City  —  distant  only  one  hundred 
to  three  hundred  miles  from  the  mills  of  the  spruce  region. 
This  southern  territory  is  not  only  very  thickly  settled,  but  it 
also  is  an  important  manufacturing  section,  calling  for  all  sorts 
of  forest  products. 

The  effective  network  of  waterways  bringing  the  logs  from  the 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION  243 

forest  to  the  mills  advantageously  located  on  railroads  or  navi- 
gable streams,  has  already  been  mentioned.  The  favorable  loca- 
tion of  the  mills  needs  further  emphasis,  however.  Throughout 
the  Maine  section  of  the  region  the  mills  are  many  of  them  so 
situated  that  they  can  ship  directly  by  vessel  to  Atlantic  coast 
points,  and  also  to  foreign  countries.  The  railway  system  of 
New  England  provides  quick  transportation  from  the  mills  to 
inland  points. 

The  demand  for  spruce,  the  principal  forest  product,  whether 
in  the  form  of  lumber  or  as  pulp,  is  in  excess  of  the  supply.  The 
area  in  the  United  States  capable  of  producing  spruce  to  best 
advantage  is  comparatively  limited,  and  as  the  timber  has  high 
technical  value,  both  for  lumber  and  pulp,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
a  constant  demand  for  the  wood  will  continue. 

The  forest  products  shipped  from  the  spruce  region  are  lumber 
and  pulpwood,  and  special  products  used  in  various  manufactur- 
ing plants,  such,  for  example,  as  bolts  of  yellow  and  paper  birch 
for  spools  and  bobbins.  The  region  is  too  far  from  markets  to 
make  possible  the  sale  of  cordwood  on  any  extensive  scale. 

Industries.  —  Usually  each  forest  region  has  some  one  or 
several  industries  dealing  with  forest  products.  These  industries 
may  be  found  only  in  that  particular  forest  region,  or  may  be 
best  developed  there,  though  occurring  in  other  regions. 

As  a  forest  region  is  separated  from  adjacent  territory  mainly 
on  its  differences  in  forest  growth,  and  as  different  timber  species 
are  best  suited  for  various  different  uses,  the  development  of  an 
industry,  typical  of  a  forest  region  is  simply  the  logical  commer- 
cial expression  of  the  forest. 

Pulpwood.  —  In  the  spruce  region  the  production  of  pulpwood 
is  the  typical  industry,  and  it  is  the  leading  region  for  the  pro- 
duction of  spruce  and  poplar  pulpwood.^ 

1  In  this  connection  it  should  be  noted  that  the  Adirondack  section  of  New 
York  state  which  is  a  great  pulpwood  producing  region  is  naturally  a  part  of  the 
spruce  region.  The  figures  given  here  are  given  for  the  New  England  portion  of 
the  spruce  region,  with  the  recognition,  however,  that  the  Adirondack  section  is 
naturally  a  part  of  the  same  forest  region  and  should  be  included  to  show  the  true 
place  of  the  region  in  relation  to  this  industry. 


244 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


The  only  other  sections  of  the  United  States  producing  spruce 
pulpwood  in  large  quantities  are  the  Lake  States  and  the 
Virginia,  West  Virginia,  and  North  Carolina  portions  of  the 
southern  Appalachians.^  Neither  of  these  sections  approaches 
the  spruce  region  in  importance,  either  in  the  production  of 
spruce  or  poplar  pulpwood.  The  figures  in  the  following  table 
serve  to  show  the  importance  of  the  pulpwood  industry  in  the 
spruce  region.^ 

PULPWOOD   CONSUMPTION    IN   THE   UNITED   STATES   FOR 
THE   YEAR   1909. 


Num- 
ber of 
mills. 

Cords  of  pulpwood  consumed. 

All  other 
woods. 

Spruce. 

Poplar. 

Total. 

Domestic. 

Im- 
ported. 

Domestic. 

Im- 
ported. 

New       England 

States' 

New  York  State 
All  other  states 

64 
90 
99 

756,088 
384,883 
512,278 

286,654 

408,719 

72,959 

121,824 

52,797 

128,255 

5,050 
17,547 
3,025 

130,242 

57,936 

1,063,350 

1,299,858 

921,882 

1,779,867 

Grand  totals. 

253 

1,653,249 

768,332 

302,876 

25,622 

1,251,528 

4,001,607 

5  The  amount  consumed  in  Vermont  by  species  is  not  included  here  as  it  is  in  the  census  figure 
included  under  "  all  other  states."     For  all  species  the  consumption  in  Vermont  is  7o,977  cords. 


In  the  table  above  the  United  States  has  been  divided  into 
three  portions,  the  New  England  States,  New  York,  and  all 
other  states.  The  first  two  divisions  taken  together  represent 
the  spruce  region.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  figures  relate  to  the 
pulpwood  consumed  in  the  mills  rather  than  to  the  amount  cut 
in  a  state.  Figures  to  show  the  latter  are  not  available.  For 
our  purposes  it  is  of  little  importance  whether  the  pulpwood  con- 
sumed in  a  given  state  was  cut  there  or  not,  so  long  as  it  was  cut 
in  the  same  forest  region.  It  may  safely  be  assumed  that  practi- 
cally the  entire  amount  of  domestic  spruce  and  poplar  pulpwood 

^  Oregon  produces  a  small  quantity  of  western  spruce  pulpwood. 

^  The  figures  in  this  table  are  compiled  from  the  publication  issued  under  date 
of  May  19,  191 1,  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  entitled  "Forest  Products  of 
the  United  States,  1909." 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION 


245 


consumed  in  the  New  England  States  (as  well  as  in  New  York 
State)  was  cut  in  the  spruce  region.  The  imported  spruce  and 
poplar  pulpwood  consumed  in  the  New  England  mills  of  course 
cannot  be  credited  to  the  cut  of  the  spruce  region,  coming,  as  it 
does,  largely  from  Canada. 

Omitting  the  imported  pulpwood  from  the  table  leaves  a  total 
consumption  of  3,278,630  cords  of  pulpwood  cut  in  the  United 
States.  The  New  England  States  produced  1,079,131  cords, 
and  New  York  State  495,616,  making  a  total  of  1,574,747  cords 
for  the  spruce  region.  This  is  nearly  47  per  cent  of  the  total 
production  in  the  country.  When  only  spruce  and  poplar  are 
considered  there  is  a  total  consumption  of  1,956,125  cords.  Of 
this  amount,  877,912  cords  were  consumed  (presumably  also 
produced)  in  the  New  England  States,  and  437,680  cords  in 
New  York  State,  giving  a  total  of  1,315,592  cords  for  the  spruce 
region,  or  over  67  per  cent  of  the  total  production. 

Lumber  Industry.  —  While  the  production  of  pulpwood  may 
be  considered  as  the  typical  forest  industry,  the  cutting  of  wood 
for  use  in  the  form  of  lumber  holds  first  place  in  the  annual 
amount  of  product.  This  is  the  leading  forest  region  of  the 
country  for  the  production  of  eastern  spruce  and  balsam  fir 
lumber.  The  following  table  gives  the  amount  of  these  timbers 
cut  in  1909: 


PRODUCTION     IN    THE    UNITED    STATES    OF    SPRUCE    AND 
BALSAM   FIR   FOR   LUMBER  —  1909.      (See  note  2  on  page  244.) 


Feet,  board  measure. 

Spruce 
(Eastern).' 

Balsam. 

New  England  States. 

834,479,000 
127,864,000 
536,204,000 

72,781,000 

New  York  State 

All  other  states 

35,921,000*'= 

1,498,547,000 

108,702,000 

1  Approximately  286,045,000  feet,  board  measure,  of  western  spruce  were  cut  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain and  Pacific  coast  states. 

2  The  cut  of  balsam  in  New  York  is  included  in  this  total. 


246  FORESTRY  IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

The  New  England  States  furnish  nearly  56  per  cent  of  the 
eastern  spruce  and  67  per  cent  of  the  balsam  fir  cut  for  lumber. 
A  little  of  this  timber  undoubtedly  came  from  the  northern  hard- 
woods region.  Besides  spruce  and  balsam,  such  species  as 
beech,  maple,  birch,  basswood,  and  hemlock  are  cut  for  lumber; 
but  as  all  occur  commercially  in  some  of  the  other  New  England 
regions  it  is  difficult  to  give  definite  figures  for  the  amounts  cut. 
The  census  figures  are  for  whole  states,  and  where  a  species  is 
important  in  two  or  more  forest  regions  in  the  same  state  it  is 
difficult  to  distinguish  between  them.  Approximately,  466,- 
000,000  feet,  board  measure,  of  the  above-listed  species  were  cut 
in  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  and  Massachusetts  in 
1909,  of  which  possibly  half,  or  233,000,000  feet,  board  measure, 
came  from  the  spruce  region.  For  none  of  these  species  was  the 
spruce  region  a  large  producer,  as  the  output  in  other  forest 
regions  greatly  exceeded  this  amount  in  the  case  of  each  species. 
Besides  these  species  Maine  furnished  15,140,000  feet,  board 
measure,  of  cedar,  and  various  other  species  are  estimated  to 
add  at  least  3,000,000  feet,  board  measure,  more. 

The  total  amount  of  all  species  cut  in  1909  for  the  portion  of 
the  spruce  region  in  New  England,  was  1,158,400,000  feet, 
board  measure,  but  to  obtain  the  total  for  the  whole  region  the 
New  York  cut  must  be  added.  This  amounts  to  a  round 
300,000,000  feet,  board  measure,  for  all  species,  giving  a  total 
for  the  region  of  1,458,400,000  feet,  board  measure,  or  a  little 
over  three  per  cent  of  the  whole  lumber  cut  of  the  United  States. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  amounts  used  for  lumber  and 
pulpwood.  This  can  best  be  done  by  converting  the  cords  of 
pulpwood  into  terms  of  feet,  board  measure.  A  commonly  used 
allowance  for  a  cord  of  pulpwood  is  600  feet,  board  measure. 
Using  this  figure  the  cut  of  pulpwood  in  the  spruce  region  equals 
902,262,000  feet,  board  measure,  or  a  little  more  than  60  per  cent 
of  the  volume  of  the  lumber  cut.  If  spruce  and  balsam  lumber 
only  are  considered  an  amount  equal  to  66  per  cent  of  the  lumber 
cut  for  these  species  is  cut  as  pulpwood. 

The  comparative  desirability,  from  the  standpoint  of  forestry, 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION  247 

of  the  two  industries  (pulpwood  production  and  lumber  pro- 
duction) should  be  noted.  The  lumber  industry,  preferring  the 
larger  sized,  clearer  material,  and  seeing  little  or  no  profit  in 
small  knotty  logs,  tends  to  leave  lands  lightly  cut.  This  is  not 
always  so;  but  usually  lands  cut  for  lumber  are  left  in  better 
condition  than  lands  logged  for  pulpwood.  The  pulpwood 
operator  can  profitably  use  smaller,  defective,  and  more  knotty 
trees  than  can  the  lumber  operator.  As  a  result  of  this  fact  a 
winter's  cut  is  sometimes  disposed  of  partly  to  the  pulp  mills  and 
partly  to  the  sawmills,  the  former  taking  the  smaller,  defective 
logs,  the  latter  the  butt  logs  and  better  portions  of  the  trees. 
The  pulp  concerns,  however,  do  not  aim  to  accept  culls  in  this 
way. 

Thus  the  pulpwood  operator  is  encouraged  to  cut  his  lands 
more  closely  than  the  lumberman.  Owing  to  the  small-sized 
trees  which  can  be  used,  there  is  all  the  more  need  for  conserva- 
tive and  scientific  handling  of  lands  by  the  pulp  men.  Emphasis 
has  already  been  placed  on  the  fact  that,  in  the  selection  forest  of 
the  spruce  region,  heavy  cutting  as  a  whole  is  undesirable,  so 
that  from  this  standpoint,  the  lumberman  is  to  be  preferred  to 
the  pulpwood  operator.  However,  there  are  other  points  to  be 
considered.  The  ability  of  the  pulp  man  to  utilize  small,  rough, 
and  defective  sticks  may  be  silviculturally  an  advantage.  The 
pulpwood  operation  may  be  utilized  to  remove  undesirable  de- 
fective trees,  to  make  thinnings  in  too  thick  groups  of  young 
trees,  and  in  disposing  of  material  in  the  tops  of  felled  trees, 
which  would  not  be  merchantable  for  lumber,  thus  reducing  the 
fire  danger.  Again,  the  pulpwood  concern,  owning  its  own  lands, 
usually  has  a  heavy  investment  in  a  pulp  mill  which  can  be  made 
profitable  only  by  a  long  period  of  use.  Thus  the  continued 
production  of  pulpwood  on  its  lands  may  cause  it  to  handle  the 
lands  more  conservatively  than  a  neighboring  lumberman,  who, 
having  a  relatively  small  investment  in  equipment  and  plant,  is 
apt  to  think  more  of  immediate  profits  and  less  of  continued 
production. 

Where  both  operators  desire  to  handle  their  lands  on  forestry 


248  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

principles  the  pulpwood  operator  should  have  an  advantage 
owing  to  his  ability  to  utilize  small  and  poor  material.  Where 
neither  are  thinking  of  conservative  treatment  the  lumberman  is 
apt  to  leave  the  lands  in  best  growing  condition. 

Special  Woodworking  Industries.  —  A  record  of  the  indus- 
tries using  forest  products  which  are  characteristic  of  the  spruce 
region  would  not  be  complete  without  mention  of  those  using 
paper  birch.  This  tree  has  a  restricted  commercial  range,  ex- 
tending through  the  southern  portion  of  this  region  in  Maine, 
and  the  eastern  side  of  the  White  Mountains  in  New  Hampshire.^ 
Within  this  range  it  is  a  commercially  important  species,  being 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  spools,  shoe  pegs  and  shanks,  tooth- 
picks, toys,  and  novelties  of  various  sorts.  For  many  of  these 
articles  no  other  wood  so  far  tried  has  given  as  good  results  as 
paper  birch,  owing  to  its  clean  white  color,  relative  softness,  ease 
of  turning,  and  even  texture.  The  amount  used  annually  is  not 
large,  but  practically  the  entire  cut  of  the  species  occurs  here, 
and  the  industries  using  the  wood  have  not  as  yet  developed 
extensively  elsewhere.  The  annual  cut  of  the  species  has  been 
estimated  at  80,000  cords,  or  32,000,000  feet,  board  measure. 
The  location  of  the  belt  of  paper  birch  near  the  southern  limit 
of  the  spruce  region  brings  it  into  a  more  settled  country,  with 
better  transportation  facilities  than  the  average.  As  a  result, 
partly  of  this  condition  and  also  of  the  scattered  nature  of  the 
paper  birch  timber  with  a  low  average  stand  per  acre  (see  map),^ 
the  mills  handling  the  wood  have  a  small  average  capacity. 

There  are  four  chief  products  into  which  the  paper  birch  is 
manufactured,  named  here  in  order  of  size  of  annual  output: 
spools;  novelties,  toys,  etc.;  shoe  pegs  and  shanks;  and,  of  least 
importance,  toothpicks.  The  manufacture  of  toothpicks,  shoe 
pegs  and  shanks,  and  spools  requires  wood  of  high  grade,  the 
highest  quality  being  needed  for  the  former  and  the  poorest  for 
the  latter.  Even  for  spools,  however,  the  wood  must  be  white 
(which  excludes  the  reddish  heartwood),  sound,  free  from  rot 

^  In  Circular  No.  163  of  the  United  States  Forest  Service  can  be  found  a  map 
showing  the  commercial  distribution  of  paper  birch. 


THE  SPRUCE   REGION  249 

and  large  knots.  For  toothpicks  absolutely  clear,  straight  wood 
is  needed.  The  quahty  of  the  wood  needed  for  these  products 
causes  considerable  waste  in  the  logging  and  makes  the  wood 
expensive.  Besides  the  paper  birch  a  little  yellow  birch  is  used 
for  these  products,  and  in  other  regions  the  gray  birch,  though 
with  less  satisfactory  results. 

A  decidedly  lower  grade  of  paper  birch  may  be  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  various  novelties  ^  and  toys.  Sometimes  a 
novelty  mill  can  utilize  a  large  part  of  the  waste  left  in  manu- 
facturing one  of  the  other  products,  thus  utilizing  the  knotty 
wood  and  the  red  heartwood.  Inasmuch  as  low-grade  wood  is 
often  permitted  in  the  manufacture  of  novelties  other  species,  as 
yellow  birch,  beech,  and  maple,  of  a  lower  technical  value  than 
paper  birch  are  employed. 

These  minor  industries  all  aid  in  utilizing  the  hardwood 
species,  and,  where  (as  in  the  manufacture  of  novelties)  they 
can  use  wood  other  than  that  of  the  highest  grade  or  best  species, 
are  a  valuable  aid  in  forest  management.  The  use  of  poplar  for 
excelsior  is  another  small  industry  which  can  be  of  assistance  in 
forest  management.  The  amount  of  wood  cut  for  this  purpose 
in  New  England  is  not  large.  Spruce  and  balsam  are  used  to  a 
small  extent  for  slack  cooperage  staves. 

Slimmer  Resort  Business.  —  The  summer  resort  industry  which 
may  so  strongly  affect  forestry,  and  be  affected  by  it,  deserves 
consideration.  Such  interrelation  between  forestry  and  this 
business  may  not  exist  in  every  section  of  the  country,  but  in 
this  territory  it  is  certainly  important. 

The  fact  that  the  spruce  region  throughout  its  entire  extent, 
from  the  Adirondacks  on  the  west,  through  northern  Vermont 
and  New  Hampshire  into  northern  and  eastern  Maine,  is  a  well- 
developed  and  popular  resort  for  summer  tourists,  hunters,  and 
fishermen,  is  too  well  understood  to  need  elaboration.  It  is  a 
business  which  brings  in  large  amounts  of  money  annually  to 
the  local  communities,  and  is  a  chief  source  of  livelihood  to  many 
of  the  inhabitants. 

'  Under  the  name  of  novelties  are  included  all  sorts  of  small  wooden  knickknacks. 


250  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGL.^ND 

The  region  owes  its  attractiveness  for  the  tourist  to  its  climate, 
its  rough  and  varied  topography,  its  water,  the  fish  and  game 
inhabiting  the  forest,  and  its  forest  cover.  Of  these  five  the  one 
most  easily  and  visibly  affected  is  the  forest  cover,  and  it  cer- 
tainly is  not  the  least  important  of  the  five  attractions.  From 
the  standpoint  of  the  tourist  this  forest  cover  should  suffer  no 
injury,  but  should  be  kept  in  an  untouched  virgin  condition, 
preserving  all  of  its  original  beauty.  Since,  however,  the  forests 
of  the  spruce  region  constitute  one  of  its  chief  natural  resources, 
they  cannot  be  allowed  to  lie  unproductive.  It  is  here  that 
forestry  can  arrange  a  compromise  between  simple  exploitation, 
which,  in  the  long  run,  would  decrease  the  possible  value  of,  if  not 
entirely  destroy,  this  natural  resource  —  and  preservation  for 
aesthetic  purposes,  which  also  would  keep  the  forest  unproductive. 
Through  conservative  cutting  and  especially  through  proper 
protection  from  fire,  the  forest  can  be  made  to  produce  timber 
crops  and  at  the  same  time  be  kept  aesthetically  attractive. 
Thus  forestry  will  enable  both  lumbering  and  the  summer  resort 
business  to  utilize  the  forest  for  their  widely  different  purposes. 

On  certain  situations,  such  as  the  tops  of  high  mountains  or 
on  the  slopes  of  picturesque  ravines,  it  may  be  advisable  to  keep 
the  forest  untouched,  simply  from  the  aesthetic  standpoint,  since 
the  value  of  the  forest  here  as  an  addition  to  the  scenery  may 
far  outweigh  its  lumber  value.  The  slopes  of  the  Crawford 
Notch,  to  be  acquired  by  the  State  of  New  Hampshire,  furnish 
an  illustration.  This  forest  should  either  be  kept  untouched  or 
culled  of  the  dying  and  defective  trees  in  the  lightest  possible 
manner. 

Undoubtedly  the  desire  to  cater  to  the  summer  tourists  has 
created  a  strong  sentiment  in  the  region  for  fire  protection. 
Fire  damages  the  appearance  of  the  forest  even  more  than  the 
worst  lumbering.  Throughout  the  White  Mountain  section  of 
New  Hampshire,  the  sentiment  is  especially  strong  to  prevent 
fire  injury  to  forest  scenery,  for  it  is  in  this  section  that  the  sum- 
mer resort  business  has  been  most  highly  developed. 

Wherever  men  directly  interested  in  the  business  own  forest 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION  251 

lands  they  have  been  influenced  to  cut  more  conservatively  and 
to  secure  adequate  protection. 

Character  of  the  Land  and  Timber  Ownership.  —  The  character 
of  the  ownership  of  the  land  and  timber  in  a  forest  region  is  al- 
ways of  interest  from  the  forestry  standpoint,  since  it  often  has 
a  bearing  on  the  methods  of  management  which  may  be  em- 
ployed. Usually  conditions  of  ownership  differ  widely  in  the 
several  forest  regions  and  in  a  way  serve  as  a  distinctive  charac- 
teristic of  a  region. 

The  region  under  discussion  is  characterized  by  the  large  size 
of  the  individual  holdings  as  compared  to  the  other  portions  of 
New  England.  There  are  a  number  of  holdings  comprising 
several  hundred  thousand  acres  apiece,  and  holdings  of  from 
20,000  to  100,000  acres  are  numerous.  A  large  part  of  the  land, 
however,  is  owned  in  small  holdings  of  less  than  1000  acres  in 
extent.  The  proportion  of  large  to  small  holdings  is  greatest 
in  the  Maine  section  and  smallest  in  the  Vermont  section. 
Figures  showing  the  character  of  the  ownership  are  not  available 
for  the  entire  region.  For  the  New  Hampshire  portion,  however, 
data  secured  in  1903-4  by  the  United  States  Forest  Service,^  are 
available,  and  are  here  given  to  show  the  approximate  areas 
owned  by  different  classes  of  landowners  in  northern  New  Hamp- 
shire in  that  year. 

Lumber  companies 400,000  acres 

Pulp  and  paper  mills 500,000  acres 

Agricultural  land 244,000  acres 

Hotel  companies 28,000  acres 

vSmall  holders  of  forest  land 756,000  acres 

Total 1 ,928,000  acres 

These  figures  cover  approximately  the  New  Hampshire  area 
in  the  spruce  region.  It  will  be  seen  that  small  holdings  form 
the  largest  single  class,  but  that  lumber  companies  combined 
with  pulp  and  paper  mills  own  a  larger  acreage.  New  Hamp- 
shire stands  midway  between  the  Vermont  and  Maine  sections 
in  per  cent  of  small  holders,  and  undoubtedly  for  the  whole 

^  See  Bulletin  55,  Forest  Service,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


252  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

region  the  ratio  of  acreage  of  small  holdings  to  large  ones  is 
much  below  that  indicated  in  the  figures  given. 

Besides  such  large  owners  of  land  as  lumber  companies,  pulp 
and  paper  concerns,  should  be  added  in  Maine  another  class  of 
large  owners,  namely,  individuals  or  companies  owning  timber 
land,  but  not  themselves  operating  the  lands.  They  are  owners 
who  sell  stumpage  and  in  the  Maine  section  are  an  important 
class  of  owners.  Formerly  the  number  and  relative  importance 
of  this  class  was  greater  than  it  is  to-day.  In  fact,  the  trend  of 
ownership  is  away  from  individuals  who  hold  stumpage  toward 
corporations  who  conduct  their  own  logging  operations.  As  a 
rule  the  timberland  owner  selling  stumpage  should  be  inclined 
favorably  toward  conservative  cutting.  He  desires  to  secure  a 
steady  income  (received  often  periodically)  from  his  timber- 
lands  and  to  do  this  must  cut  conservatively.  He  does  this  in 
ordinary  practice  by  specifying  in  the  logging  contract  a  diam- 
eter limit  below  which  size  trees  may  not  be  cut.  This  is,  of 
course,  a  crude  method  of  securing  proper  cutting,  but  it  serves  as 
an  indication  of  the  right  attitude.  As  knowledge  of  the  proper 
and  practicable  methods  spreads  it  is  to  be  expected  that  owners 
selling  stumpage  will  improve  their  selling  contracts.  The  dif- 
ference in  attitude  between  the  ordinary  lumberman  and  the 
pulp  and  paper  mill  has  been  discussed  already  under  "Indus- 
tries." The  tendency  is  for  the  holdings  of  pulp  and  paper  mills 
to  increase,  by  the  absorption  of  lands  belonging  to  lumber 
companies. 

The  area  of  28,000  acres  listed  as  owned  by  hotel  companies 
in  northern  New  Hampshire  is  worthy  of  mention,  because  this 
class  of  owners  is  increasing.  Their  control  means  either  re- 
serving the  forest  for  its  scenic  value  without  any  cutting  or 
an  extremely  light  and  conservative  culling.  In  the  latter  case 
they  become  an  extremely  desirable  class  of  owners. 

Another  thing  characteristic  of  land  and  timber  ownership 
in  the  spruce  region  is  that  the  ownership  of  the  land  and  of  the 
timber  usually  lie  with  the  same  person  or  company.  Ownership 
of  the  land  by  one  party  and  of  the  timber  by  another  is  an 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION  253 

uncommon  arrangement  in  the  region,  although  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  some  other  forest  regions.  It  is  true  that  a  timber- 
land  owner  will  frequently  make  a  sale  of  a  certain  amount  of 
stumpage  or  the  stumpage  on  a  given  tract.  This  sale  ordi- 
narily is  for  immediate  cutting,  usually  the  same  year  as  made, 
and  is  not  comparable  with  the  condition  where  for  a  long  series 
of  years  the  ownership  of  the  land  and  of  the  timber  is  vested 
in  two  different  parties. 

There  is  practically  no  reversion  of  land  to  the  state  for  non- 
payment of  taxes,  which  is  so  common  in  certain  parts  of  the 
country.  This  condition  occurs  usually  on  lands  which  are 
heavily  lumbered  and  stripped  of  all  valuable  growth.  It  is 
uncommon  in  a  forest  of  a  selection  type.  In  the  forests  of  the 
spruce  region,  unless  repeatedly  burned,  there  is  either  something 
of  value  left  on  the  land,  or  reproduction  will  start  there.  Thus 
the  productive  power  of  the  land  remains  even  after  heavy  lum- 
bering, lessened,  to  be  sure,  by  improper  methods  of  cutting,  but 
still  there. 

Another  reason  that  no  land  is  abandoned  is  that  taxation  on 
cut-over  lands  and  timberlands  is  not  so  excessive  as,  for  example, 
in  the  Lake  States,  and  the  owner  is  therefore  not  forced  to  strip 
his  land. 

The  individual  states  own  an  insignificant  amount  of  land  in 
the  spruce  region  as  is  shown  in  a  later  chapter.  As  a  result  of  the 
passage,  in  191 1,  of  the  law  permitting  the  creation  of  National 
Forests  in  the  Appalachians  and  White  Mountains,  it  is  probable 
that  the  Federal  Government  will  become  an  owner  of  land  here. 

These  national  forests  will  be  largely  in  the  White  Mountains 
and  presumably  will  be  handled  so  as  to  produce  timber,  but 
with  special  care  to  maintain  the  protective  function  and  aesthetic 
value  of  the  forest. 

Forest  Protection. 

The  principal  agencies  damaging  forests  and  against  which 
protective  measures  are  often  necessary  are  forest  fires,  grazing 
animals,  insects,  and  fungi.  Each  of  the  four  will  be  discussed 
here  in  their  relation  to  the  forest  of  the  spruce  region. 


254 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


Forest  Fires.  —  The  general  effects  of  forest  fires  have  been, 
stated  in  the  chapter  on  that  subject.  All  classes  of  fire  injury 
as  there  described  may  be  found  in  this  region.  Owing  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil  on  many  sites  (usually  slopes),  consisting  of  a 
thick  layer  of  duff  immediately  underlaid  with  loose  rocks  or  a 
thin  layer  of  mineral  soil,  injury  to  the  soil  is  especially  marked. 


By  permission  oj  Ihe  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

Fig.  87.  —  A  steep  slope  once  clothed  with  merchantable  timber,  but  now  stripped  of 
humus  and  soil  by  forest  fires. 

Undoubtedly  the  greatest  damage  is  done  on  such  situations 
where  a  fire  entirely  consumes  the  duff  and  soil,  leaving  the  bare 
rocks,  which  may  lie  unproductive  for  centuries. 

The  three  kinds  of  fire,  ground,  surface,  and  crown  fires,  all 
occur;  ground  fires  being  the  most  typical,  because  common 
here  and  not  ordinarily  found  in  other  New  England  forest 
regions,  where  the  accumulations  of  duff  are  much  thinner.  The 
dangerous  season  is  in  two  periods,  beginning  in  the  spring  as 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION 


255 


soon  as  the  snow  disappears  and  lasting  until  the  green  foliage 
is  well  out.  In  ordinary  seasons  this  is  from  the  latter  part  of 
April  until  well  into  June.  The  second  danger  season  is  the 
early  fall  after  the  leaves  have  dropped  from  the  trees  and  before 
snow  comes,  usually  from  early  in  September  until  well  into 
October.  The  distribution  of  the  rainfall  controls  the  season 
of  fire  damage.  An  early  spring  with  little  rainfall  may  cause 
the  fire  season  to  open  early,  and  if  the  rain  continues  scanty 
may  make  dangerous  conditions  all  summer.  The  season  of 
1908  furnishes  a  good  example  of  this.  In  the  report  of  the 
Forest  Commissioner  of  Maine  for  1907  and  1908,  he  says, 
speaking  of  the  season  of  1908:  ''The  dry  season  began  early  in 
May  and  extended  until  October  27th,  during  which  period  there 
were  not  more  than  three  weeks  when  forest  fires  would  not  run." 
Such  a  condition  is  unusual  and  does  not  occur  on  the  average 
once  a  decade. 

The  following  table  illustrates  the  effect  of  drouth  in  increasing 
forest  fires: 

FOREST  FIRES  IN  THE  SPRUCE  REGION  OF  MAINE  FOR  THE 
YEARS   1907-1910.1 


Number  of 
fires. 


Acres  burned 
over. 


Average  area 
burned  over 
per  fire,  acres. 


1907. 
1908. 
1909. 
[910. 


16 

126 

68 

18 


2,124 

98,691 

27-083 

267 


'^33 

783 

398 

15 


Total. 


228 


128,165 


Annual  average . 


562 


1  This  table  is  compiled  from  the  seventh  and  eighth  reports  of  the  Forest  Commissioner  of 
Maine.  The  unincorporated  towns  of  Maine  have  been  taken  as  making  up  the  spruce  region  of 
Maine. 


What  is  most  significant  in  bringing  out  the  relative  increase 
of  damage  done  in  a  dry  season  is  the  large  area  burned  over  by 
the  average  fire  in  1908  as  compared  with  1907,  1909,  and  1910. 
In  1908  the  area  burned  over  averaged  783  acres  per  fire,  as 


256  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

against  398  in  1909  (which  was  second  to  1908  in  dryness),  133 
in  1907,  and  only  15  acres  per  fire  in  1910. 

The  number  of  fires  annually  reported  is  remarkably  small, 
but  the  numerous  small  fires  just  starting,  which  have  been 
extinguished  by  patrolmen  are  not  included. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  spruce  region  is  by  nature  better  pro- 
tected from  forest  fires  than  many  others.  The  rainfall  is  ample 
and  normally  so  distributed  that  long,  severe  droughts  are 
exceptional.  This  rainfall  and  the  cover  of  moss  and  duff  keep 
the  forest  floor  in  a  moist  condition  unfavorable  to  the  spread  of 
fire.  It  is  only  in  times  of  drouth,  or  when  the  forest  floor  is 
aided  artificially  in  drying  out,  that  severe  fire  danger  threatens, 
as  when  lumbering  has  opened  up  the  forest  and  let  in  added 
light  and  heat.  Even  in  a  season  with  abundant  and  well-dis- 
tributed rainfall,  land  heavily  cut  over  may  be  dried  out  suffi- 
ciently to  burn  easily.  Of  course  the  slash  left  by  the  lumber- 
man increases  the  amount  of  inflammable  material  on  which  a 
fire  may  feed. 

In  ordinary  years  the  forest  fires  all  arise  on  cut-over  lands, 
stands  of  uncut  timber  being  practically  immune,  since  they  are 
too  moist  to  allow  a  fire  to  start.  A  crown  fire,  however,  may 
run  through  a  virgin  forest  if  it  secures  a  good  start  on  cut- 
over  land  and  there  is  a  strong  wind.  The  damage  to  mer- 
chantable standing  timber  is  ordinarily  small,  the  chief  injury 
(beside  damage  to  the  soil)  being  to  young  growth.  Cut-over 
lands  in  the  spruce  region  usually  have  at  least  a  fair  stocking 
of  young  conifers  from  seedlings  up  to  trees  just  under  merchant- 
able size.  The  fires  destroy  all  these,  and  change  the  condition 
of  the  forest  floor  so  that  it  no  longer  offers  a  favorable  germina- 
tion bed  for  the  seed  of  spruce  and  balsam,  but  is  best  for  the 
reproduction  of  bird  cherry,  mountain  maple,  and  berry  bushes 
among  worthless  species,  and  the  valuable  aspen  and  birch.  If 
these  latter  could  always  be  counted  on  to  thoroughly  seed  up 
burned  lands  without  delay,  the  damage  done  by  the  fires  would 
be  greatly  reduced,  but  unfortunately  they  do  not. 

The  principal  known  causes  of  forest  fires  are  in  the  order  of 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION  257 

their  importance :  first,  carelessness  in  burning  brush  in  clearing 
land;  second,  sportsmen  of  various  sorts,  such  as  campers, 
fishermen,  and  hunters;  and  third,  railroad  locomotives.  In 
the  Vermont  section,  railroad  locomotives  are  the  cause  of  only 
a  small  percentage  of  the  fires,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  railroads 
traversing  this  portion  of  the  region  are  not  adjacent  to  extensive 
wooded  areas  —  a  narrow  belt  of  agricultural  land  along  the 
valleys  intervening  between  the  railroad  and  the  forest.  This  is 
true  to  a  lesser  extent  in  the  New  Hampshire  section,  but  in 
Maine  many  railroads  run  for  considerable  distances  through 
woodland. 

At  the  present  time,  methods  of  securing  data  on  forest  fires 
lack  the  highest  efficiency,  and  a  large  per  cent  of  the  fires 
reported  are  attributed  to  "unknown"  causes.  As  the  state 
organizations  for  reporting  fires  become  thoroughly  organized 
and  trained  this  class  of  fires  should  be  reduced  to  a  small  per 
cent  of  the  total.  If  the  unknown  causes  were  discovered  the 
number  of  fires  set  by  sportsmen  would  undoubtedly  be  greatly 
increased,  and  it  is  believed  would  take  fiirst  place  in  the  region. 

Statistics  on  fires  in  the  spruce  region  will  be  found  in  the 
Appendix  under  "Forest  Fire  Statistics." 

Methods  of  Fire  Protection.  —  The  best  method  of  fire  pro- 
tection for  the  spruce  region  consists  in  a  combined  system  of 
mountain  lookout  stations  and  patrolmen,  maintained  by  the 
cooperation  of  the  states  involved,  individual  timberland  owners, 
and  the  federal  government.^  A  network  of  telephone  lines  to 
all  parts  of  the  territory  is  necessary.  The  forests  of  the  spruce 
region  have  been  lumbered  for  so  long  a  period,  and  the  selection 
character  of  the  forest  allows  so  many  and  frequent  returns  to 
previously  cut-over  lands,  that  old  roads,  camps,  and  telephone 
lines  cover  the  whole  area.  On  many  tracts  all  the  telephone 
lines  needed  for  protection  have  existed  for  years.  Elsewhere 
new  construction  or  repair  of  old  lines  is  made  easy  by  the 
improvements  already  existing. 

1  The  cooperative  arrangement  between  the  states  and  the  federal  government 
is  described  in  Chapter  XVII. 


258  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

The  cooperative  system  of  lookout  stations  and  patrolmen 
is  already  established  over  the  greater  part  of  the  region  and  is 
each  year  becoming  more  thoroughly  organized  and  efhcient. 
The  details  of  the  organization  differ  for  each  of  the  three  states 
involved,  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  and  Vermont,  and  are  de- 
scribed in  Chapter  XVII. 

Supplementing  this  system  the  use  of  oil  or  electricity  for  fuel 
on  railroads  running  through  timberlands  is  advisable;  and  the 
lopping  of  coniferous  tops  so  that  they  lie  in  contact  with  the 
ground  is  often  best. 

The  object  of  the  lopping-ofT  of  branches  from  the  tops  of  felled 
conifers,  so  that  the  top  lies  in  close  contact  with  the  ground,  is 
not  only  to  prevent  the  danger  of  fires  starting,  but  to  lessen  their 
severity  when  once  started.  A  spruce  or  balsam  top  with  the 
branches  left  on  decays  very  slowly  and  is  Kable  to  burn  readily 
for  many  years  after  cutting.  If  lopped  it  decays  with  compara- 
tive rapidity,  due  to  its  contact  with  the  moist  ground.  In  ten 
years  after  cutting  all  but  the  largest  tops  should  have  entirely 
disappeared.  The  danger  of  their  burning  is  over  in  three  or 
four  years  after  the  cutting. 

Lopping  is  advised  wherever  the  danger  from  fire  is  great, 
near  railroads  for  example,  where  the  cutting  has  been  heavy  and 
there  are  many  tops  on  the  ground,  and  where  an  owner  is  wilhng 
to  spend  something  to  secure  the  fullest  protection. 

The  operators  in  the  New  York  portion  of  the  region  are 
now  required  by  a  law  passed  in  1909  to  lop  tops.  The  law  is 
enforced  through  the  fire  rangers,  who  are  under  the  control  of 
the  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commission.^  That  the  lopping 
has  so  far  proved  successful  can  be  seen  from  the  following  quo- 
tation.'-^ 

"  More  recent  operations  also  show  results  favorable  to  lopping. 
The  brush  is  more  closely  packed  upon  the  ground.  This  is  true, 
even  when  it  is  found  in  piles  as  the  result  of  many  tops  lying 

^  This  is  now  placed  under  the  New  York  State  Conservation  Commission. 
2  See  article  by  John  W.  Stephen,  State  Forester,  and  published  in  the  Fifteenth 
Annual  Report  of  the  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commission. 


THE  SPRUCE  REGION 


259 


By  permission  of  the  U.  6".  Forest  Service. 

Fig.  88.  —  A  spruce  top  improperly  lopped.     The  top  is  still  a  fire  trap. 


•By  permission  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

Fig.  89.  —  The  same  top  properly  lopped,  with  all  the  branches  taken  off  so  that  all  portions 
are  close  to  the  ground  in  a  position  to  decay  rapidly. 


26o  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

together  or  when  collected  into  piles  in  order  to  clear  roadways 
for  hauling  to  skidways,  the  piles  are  lower  and  occupy  less  room. 
They  will  come  in  contact  with  the  ground  more  readily,  retain 
the  moisture  more  persistently  and  decay  more  rapidly.  This 
shortens  the  time  necessary  to  guard  against  fire  and  in  case  a 
fire  gets  started,  the  brush  being  lower,  the  fire  is  nearer  the 
ground,  men  can  approach  it  more  closely,  and  it  is  less  liable  to 
communicate  with  the  crowns  of  the  trees  and  start  a  crown  fire 
than  it  is  when  the  piles  are  higher." 

The  lopping  should  be  done  at  the  same  time  as  the  logging 
in  order  to  secure  the  cheapest  results.  Where  done  at  this  time 
the  average  cost  should  not  exceed  ten  cents  per  cord  of  pulpwood 
cut,  or  fifteen  cents  per  thousand  feet  of  lumber.  Oftentimes 
lopping  results  in  an  additional  profit  instead  of  an  expense,  be- 
cause when  lopping  is  done  the  loggers  are  apt  to  take  a  longer 
total  length  out  of  the  tree  and  thus  secure  more  timber  for  a 
comparatively  small  outlay.  Pulpwood  especially  might  be  taken 
to  smaller  sizes  than  at  present.  With  the  ordinary  mechanical 
process  of  rossing  (removing)  the  bark  to  prepare  the  wood  for 
the  manufacture  of  pulp,  sticks  much  less  than  four  inches  in 
diameter  are  wasted.  If,  however,  newer  processes  of  removing 
the  bark,  with  the  aid  of  water  or  steam,  are  employed,  it  should 
be  possible  to  use  sticks  considerably  under  three  inches  in  diam- 
eter. Cutting  to  a  diameter  limit  of  one  inch  less  in  the  tops 
would  mean  that  the  tops  left  in  the  woods  would  be  much 
smaller. 

In  a  heavy  cutting  where  the  tops  have  to  be  thrown  aside 
for  roadways,  the  lopping  may  make  the  tops  so  much  easier  to 
handle  that  a  saving  is  effected. 

Lopping  is  not  recommended  for  hardwoods,  since  hardwood 
tops  rot  much  sooner  than  those  of  conifers. 

The  piling  and  burning  of  brush  is  often  recommended  as  the 
best  way  to  dispose  of  inflammable  debris.  This  method  is, 
however,  wholly  unsuited  for  use  in  the  spruce  region.  There  is 
too  much  young  growth  and  reproduction  on  the  ground  which 
will  be  injured  in  burning  the  piles  of  brush.     The  ground  actu- 


THE   SPRUCE   REGION  261 

ally  burned  over  by  the  piles  is  usually  left  with  the  mineral  soil 
exposed  and  is  apt  to  seed  up  to  poplar,  birch,  or  inferior  species 
instead  of  to  conifers. 

Fighting  Fires.  —  In  fighting  fires  in  this  region  the  most 
effective  tools  are  shovels,  axes,  and  pails.  Practically  the  only 
way  to  stop  a  ground  fire  is  to  dig  through  the  duff  down  to 
mineral  soil,  and  as  almost  all  surface  fires  here  are  apt  to  be 
accompanied  by  ground  fires  this  is  one  of  the  commonest 
methods  of  fighting.  A  trench  a  foot  or  more  wide  cut  through 
to  bare  soil  will  serve  to  stop  a  ground  fire  and  the  smaller  surface 
fires.  The  fire  should  be  entirely  surrounded  by  the  trench  be- 
fore it  is  left.  If  the  fire  fighters  patrol  along  this  Kne  they  can 
stop  even  a  hot  surface  fire  by  throwing  shovelfuls  of  dirt  onto 
the  fire  where  it  threatens  to  cross.  Beating  the  fire  out  with 
green  branches  or  wet  "gunny"  sacks  when  it  crosses  the  Hne 
is  also  eflective. 

Axes  are  needed  to  cut  out  roots  or  logs  which  cross  the  ditch 
and  occasionally  to  fell  a  dead  stub  which  might  blaze  up  and 
scatter  sparks.  The  pails  are  valuable  wherever  water  is  avail- 
able and  the  application  of  water  is  always  very  effective. 
However,  even  when  water  is  used  a  ground  fire  should  be 
trenched,  as  it  is  almost  impossible  to  be  sure  that  such  a  fire 
has  been  completely  extinguished. 

A  shovel  or  a  tool  of  similar  nature  and  an  axe  are  essential 
for  controlling  a  ground  fire.  If  these  tools  are  at  hand  or  can 
be  quickly  secured  much  valuable  time  will  be  saved  in  putting 
out  the  fire. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  is  evident  that  the  system  of  fire 
protection  for  an  individual  tract  in  the  New  England  portion 
of  the  spruce  region  will  have  its  basis  in  state  or  cooperative 
patrol  and  lookout  stations,  made  effective  by  a  complete  tele- 
phone system.  The  individual  owner  should  strengthen  his 
protection  by  lopping  tops  on  his  holdings  and  may,  if  he  wishes, 
add  extra  patrolmen  to  those  employed  by  the  central  authority. 
He  should  develop  the  telephone  system  on  his  tract  so  as  to 
thoroughly  cover  his  territory,  and  should  distribute  supplies  of 


262  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

fire-fighting  tools  which  can  quickly  be  reached  from  any  portion 
of  the  area. 

Protection  against  Grazing  Animals. — The  spruce  region  is 
fortunate  in  being  free  from  serious  damage  from  grazing  animals. 
Such  animals  are  one  of  the  commonest  agencies  working  injury 
to  the  forests  of  the  United  States,  but  conditions  here  are  not 
favorable  for  them.  The  forest  is  too  unbroken  in  its  extent  and 
too  dense  in  its  character  to  afford  good  grazing.  The  settlers 
may  turn  out  to  pasture  their  few  cows  and  horses  but  the  injury 
done  the  forest  by  these  animals  is  immaterial. 

Protection  against  Insects.  —  The  most  destructive  insect  to 
standing  timber  is  the  spruce-destroying  beetle  (Dendroctonus 
piceaperda).  The  habits  of  this  insect,  the  injuries  which  it 
causes  and  the  general  methods  of  control  have  been  discussed 
in  the  Chapter  on  Insects.  Ten  to  fifteen  years  ago,  the  last 
serious  attack  made  by  this  insect,  of  which  there  is  a  record, 
occurred  in  the  upper  Androscoggin  valley  in  extreme  north- 
western Maine.  Through  the  efforts  of  Mr.  Austin  Gary,  at 
that  time  forester  for  the  Berlin  Mills  Company,  the  work  of  the 
insect  was  discovered  and  finally  checked.  Many  fine  bodies  of 
timber  had  been  killed,  others  were  infested,  and  the  beetle, 
left  uncontrolled,  might  have  destroyed  all  the  merchantable 
timber  in  that  section.  By  directing  the  logging  operations 
into  the  areas  containing  the  most  dead  and  infected  timber  the 
beetle  was  finally  checked  and  although  by  no  means  extermi- 
nated was  so  reduced  in  numbers  as  to  be  held  in  control  sub- 
sequently by  natural  enemies. 

The  larch  sawfly  {Nematus  erichsonii)  ^  about  thirty  years  ago 
destroyed  practically  all  the  large  tamarack  timber.  This  tree 
is  now  of  secondary  commercial  importance  and  does  not  occur 
in  large  enough  bodies  to  justify  special  efforts  for  its  protection. 
On  tracts  situated  close  to  markets  it  might  be  possible  to  remove 
the  dead  and  infested  trees  and  utilize  them,  but  away  from 
markets  no  special  cuttings  can  be  made. 

The    spruce-bud    worm    (Tortrix   fumiferana)^    is    another 

1  See  Chapter  on  Insects. 


THE   SPRUCE  REGION  263 

dangerous  insect,  although  recently  it  has  been  more  abundant 
in  Canada  than  in  New  England. 

Protection  against  Fungi.  —  Both  Trametes  pini  and  Poly- 
porus  schweinitzii  attack  various  conifers  in  the  spruce  region. 
There  is  practically  nothing  that  can  be  done  here  in  the  way  of 
protection  except  to  remove  as  much  of  the  diseased  timber  as 
possible. 

Watershed  Protection.  —  In  considering  the  subject  of  forest 
protection,  watershed  protection  quite  naturally  has  a  place,  as 
it  is  one  of  the  most  important  functions  of  the  forest.  The 
fact  is  unquestioned,  that  a  forest  cover  exerts  a  powerful  pro- 
tective influence  in  checking  the  rapid  run-off  of  precipitation, 
in  steadying  the  flow  of  springs  and  streams,  and  in  preventing 
erosion. 

The  necessity  for  the  forest  cover  as  a  watershed  protector 
undoubtedly  varies  in  the  different  districts,  depending  on  such 
factors  as  climate,  topography,  soil,  general  location,  and  whether 
a  substitute  for  the  forest  exists.  In  the  region  under  considera- 
tion the  need  of  a  forest  cover  for  watershed  protection  is  not  so 
urgent  as  in  certain  other  parts  of  the  country  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  region  comprises  the  upper  watersheds  of  all  New  Eng- 
land's chief  rivers,  which  are  largely  used  for  power  purposes 
and  in  their  lower  reaches  are  navigable.  The  effect  of  a  forest 
cover  in  lessening  the  volume  of  floods  and  in  equalizing  the  run- 
oft"  through  the  year  is  here  secured  through  the  great  areas  of 
swamp  and  flat  country  on  the  upper  reaches  of  the  streams 
and  by  the  large  number  of  lakes.  Many  of  these  lakes  act  as 
reservoirs,  their  flow  being  controlled  by  gates.  This  lessens  the 
effect  of  floods  in  the  lower  portions  of  the  streams  and  assists  in 
making  the  flow  regular.  In  Vermont  and  in  the  White  Moun- 
tain section  of  New  Hampshire  especially,  the  steep  topography 
and  lack  of  swamp  land  makes  a  forest  cover  of  great  importance 
in  regulating  run-off. 

The  soil,  due  to  its  texture  and  to  the  cover  of  moss  and  duff 
so  commonly  found,  is  not  one  which  erodes  badly,  even  after 
lumbering. 


264  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

It  is  only  on  lands  which  have  been  lumbered  and  then  burned 
over  that  the  protecting  soil  cover  is  removed  and  danger  of 
erosion  caused.  On  such  lands  no  serious  damage  need  be  feared 
unless  the  land  slopes  sharply,  for  it  is  on  the  steep  cut-over  and 
burned-over  slopes  of  the  mountains  that  the  serious  danger  occurs. 
Such  lands  comprise  only  a  small  per  cent  of  the  total  area  and 
it  is  beheved  that  the  natural  soil  cover  of  moss,  herbs,  and 
shrubs,  which  will  persist  on  lands  cut  clear  but  unburned,  is  a 
sufficient  preventative. 

In  regulating  run-off  the  forest  is  more  satisfactory  than  a  good 
soil  cover  of  moss,  assisted  by  herbs  and  shrubs. 

There  is  no  intention  to  minimize  the  high  value  of  a  forest 
cover  in  protecting  watersheds  as  a  general  proposition,  but  it 
is  important  to  emphasize  the  point  that  for  the  spruce  region  as 
a  whole  the  forest,  owing  to  existing  conditions,  is  not  a  vital 
necessity  for  watershed  protection. 

Summary. 

1.  This  is  primarily  a  forest  region  with  an  exceedingly  high 
percentage  of  true  forest  soil,  a  timber  producing  and  exporting 
region,  now  and  for  all  time. 

2.  It  is  characterized  by  coniferous  forests  and  possesses,  due 
to  the  silvicultural  character  and  adaptabihty  to  the  region  of  its 
principal  species,  great  growing  and  reproductive  power  which 
it  is  difficult  to  entirely  destroy  by  careless  treatment. 

3.  The  land  is  chiefly  owned  in  large  holdings  by  concerns 
whose  interests  are  leading  them  to  hold  the  land  indefinitely, 
to  protect  them  and  to  cut  conservatively. 

4.  It  is  a  famous  summer  resort  section,  its  fame  being  largely 
due,  directly  and  indirectly,  to  the  forest  cover. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE  NORTHERN   HARDWOODS  REGION. 

General  Considerations. 

This  region  is  a  transition  belt  varying  in  width  from  a  few 
miles  to  over  forty,  but  with  an  average  of  less  than  twenty, 


Fig.  90.  —  A  general  view  of  the  country  in  the  northern  hardwoods  region. 


between  the  forests  of  the  spruce  region  in  the  higher  elevation 
and  those  of  the  New  England  white  pine  region  in  the  lower 
elevations.  On  consulting  the  map  on  page  197,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  region  is  in  two  sections,  the  larger  extending  through 
Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  and  Massachusetts,  the 
smaller  being  a  small  area  in  northeastern  Maine,  in  the  famous 

265 


266  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

potato-growing  section  of  Aroostook  County.  The  underlying 
rock  is  limestone,  which  explains  its  separation  from  the  sur- 
rounding spruce  region  with  its  rock  of  granite  and  gneiss. 

Owing  to  the  narrowness  of  the  northern  hardwoods  region 
and  to  the  fact  that  its  principal  species  occur  frequently  in  the 
two  bordering  regions,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  locate  the 
boundaries  definitely  in  the  field.  Persons  using  the  map  should 
bear  this  in  mind,  remembering  that  the  location  is  only  approxi- 
mately correct. 

The  topography  is  not  rugged  in  nature  but  is  usually  hilly 
and  presents  relatively  only  a  small  per  cent  of  level  surface. 
In  Vermont  there  is  much  steeply  sloping  land  but  in  going 
northeast  across  the  region  into  Maine  the  topography  becomes 
much  less  hilly.  Many  of  the  hilltops,  especially  in  parts  of 
Vermont,  have  gently  rounded  summits.  There  are  few  large 
swamps  in  the  region  but  small  ones  occasionally  occur,  often 
on  the  tops  of  the  hills  as  a  result  of  glacial  deposits,  which  have 
dammed  natural  drainage  lines. 

From  its  location  bordering  the  spruce  region,  it  follows  that 
none  of  New  England's  most  important  streams  find  their  sources 
within  its  boundaries,  but  many  of  them  cross  the  region  from 
their  upper  sources  in  the  other  region. 

There  are  comparatively  few  slow,  gently  flowing  streams 
here.  Most  of  them  fall  rapidly  to  the  main  rivers,  but  in  the 
central  portion  of  Maine  and  in  Aroostook  County  there  are  a 
good  many  lakes  and  more  sluggish  streams.  This  is  in  the 
leveler  portion  of  the  region,  where  the  topography  and  drainage 
conditions  dift"er  from  the  rest  of  the  territory. 

Elevations  range  up  to  2500  feet  above  sea  level.  There  are 
also  a  number  of  mountains  of  considerably  higher  elevation, 
but  their  summits  support  forests  typical  of  the  spruce  region 
and  should  be  classed  as  in  that  region.  Minimum  elevations 
of  about  100  feet  are  found  in  Maine,  but  most  of  the  region  lies 
above  500  feet. 

A  considerable  area  is  underlaid  wifh  rocks  of  a  limestone 
nature,  the  marble  quarries  of  New  England  being  located  in  the 


THE   NORTHERN   HARDWOODS   REGION  267 

region.  Granites  and  gneisses  are,  however,  the  chief  kinds  of 
bedrock. 

The  soils  are  mainly  rich,  sandy,  or  clayey  loams,  with  alluvial 
deposits  in  the  main  valleys.  They  average  deeper,  have  a 
higher  fertility,  and  contain  less  loose  surface  rock  than  the  soils 
in  the  spruce  region.  The  soils  are  not,  however,  free  from 
stones.  In  a  large  majority  of  cases  the  soils  could  be  used  for 
sheep  grazing,  if  for  no  other  form  of  agriculture,  a  fairly  low 
per  cent  being  true  forest  soil.  The  distinction  between  farm 
and  true  forest  soil  here  depends  chiefly  upon  the  location  of  the 
site.  Almost  all  the  soils  are  fertile  enough  for  agricultural  use 
and  the  distinction  can  often  be  made  correctly  by  considering 
the  very  steep  slopes  as  forest  soils  and  other  lands  as  farm  soil. 
The  quantity  of  loose  stone  in  the  surface  soil  is  another  point 
to  be  considered  in  assigning  land  to  its  best  use. 

There  is  no  data  available  for  accurately  giving  the  per  cent 
of  true  forest  soil.  It  is  estimated  that  less  than  twenty-five 
per  cent  of  the  area  can  be  so  classified.  At  the  present  time 
the  estimated  area  forested  is  fifty  per  cent  of  the  total.  In  the 
rougher  and  higher  portions,  oftentimes,  only  ten  per  cent  is 
cleared,  while  in  the  stream  valleys  seventy-five  or  eighty  per 
cent  may  be  cleared.  Although  much  land  of  agricultural  value 
is  still  forested,  the  per  cent  now  forested  is  not  likely  to  de- 
crease until  agricultural  conditions  change  decidedly. 

The  forest  is  more  broken  in  its  distribution  and  is  in  less 
extensive  bodies  than  that  of  the  spruce  region.  The  main 
stream  valleys  are  almost  always  cleared,  while  the  secondary 
streams  on  their  lower  reaches,  where  descending  precipitately 
into  the  main  streams,  are  apt  to  be  forested.  On  the  upper 
courses  of  these  secondary  streams  a  large  per  cent  of  the  agri- 
cultural land  is  located,  this  being  especially  true  of  the  Vermont 
section  where  frequently  the  rounded  summits  of  the  lower  hills 
are  cleared  and  furnish  excellent  farm  land.  Such  a  distribution 
of  the  cleared  land  may  make  the  region  appear  to  a  traveler 
on  the  railroad  as  a  very  densely  forested  section,  whereas  if  he 
could  pass  up  one  of  the  heavily  wooded  ravines  and  climb  a 


268  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

hill  he  would  see  a  country  dotted  with  cleared  land  and  wooded 
areas. 

The  forest  may  be  characterized  as  a  mixed  hardwood 
growth  of  tolerant  trees.  Conifers  occur  in  small  proportion 
only,  usually  as  scattered  individuals  or  on  swampy  lands,  or 
abandoned  fields.     The  greater  part  of  the  land  now  forested 


Fig.  gi.  —  The  higher  hills  are  wooded,  while  the  upper  portions  of  the  valk\s  usuallj  are 
cleared.     Mt.  Equinox,  Vermont,  in  background. 

has  never  been  entirely  cleared  of  its  growth,  but  has  usually 
been  culled  of  the  larger  and  better  trees.  This  style  of  cutting 
assisted  by  the  natural  tolerance  of  the  chief  species  has  resulted 
in  forming  stands  of  uneven  age,  which  is  the  characteristic  form 
of  the  forest.     Small  bodies  of  virgin  timber  still  remain. 

Sugar  maple  is  the  predominant  tree  and  finds  here  its  opti- 
mum range  in  the  United  States,^  alone  forming  from  twenty- 
five  to  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  forest  growth  over  consider- 
able areas  with  a  steadily  increasing  proportion.  Beech  and 
yellow  birch  are  the  two  species  next  in  importance;  these  three 

^  The  optimum  range  for  sugar  maple  occurs  in  Canada  in  the  Province  of 
Ontario. 


THE  NORTHERN   HARDWOODS   REGION  269 

trees  together  forming  approximately  sixty  per  cent  of  the  forest. 
Spruce,  hemlock,  and  white  pine  are  the  leading  conifers.  There 
is  also  some  balsam  and  arborvitae.  Pure  coniferous  stands  are 
of  infrequent  occurrence. 

In  the  original  forest  some  areas  bore  more  spruce  than  at 
present,  while  other  portions  were  originally  all  hardwood 
growth.  The  amount  of  spruce  in  mixture  with  the  hardwoods 
has  been  decreased  by  cutting  out  the  former. 

Other  common  hardwoods  are  poplar,  paper  birch,  basswood, 
and  white  ash.  Red  oak  becomes  of  commercial  importance  in 
the  Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  and  Massachusetts  sections  of 
the  region.  Black  cherry  and  black  birch  occur  mainly  in  the 
southern  portions.  Chestnut  extends  up  from  the  regions  to 
the  south  a  little  way  into  the  northern  hardwoods  region  in 
suflEicient  quantity  to  be  a  commercial  species  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts section. 

Forest  Types. 

As  in  the  spruce  region  both  permanent  and  temporary  forest 
types  are  found.  Of  the  five  types  recognized  two  are  permanent 
and  three  temporary. 

Permanent  forest  types. 

1.  Hardwood. 

2.  Swamp. 

a.   Hardwood  swamps. 
h.    Softwood  swamps. 

Temporary  forest  types. 

3.  Birch  and  poplar. 

4.  Old-field  hardwoods. 

5.  Old-field  conifers. 

I.  Hardwood.  —  This  is  the  prominent  type,  far  exceeding  in 
area  all  others  combined,  and  being  well  distributed  throughout 
the  region.  It  occurs  on  a  variety  of  soil  situations,  but  is  never 
found  on  swampy  sites.  The  soils  are  usually  of  good  depth 
and  fairly  rich  and  in  many  cases  could  be  used  for  farming. 


270 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


Indeed,  the  lands  now  cleared  for  farming,  with  few  exceptions, 
were  formerly  occupied  by  forests  of  the  hardwood  type.  In 
other  cases  the  sites  now  occupied  by  the  type  are  too  rocky  or 
steep  to  warrant  their  use  for  agricultural  purposes. 


Fig.  92.  —  The  hardwood  type  in  the  Berkshires.  A  mature  stand  of  yellow  and  paper 
birch,  oak  and  a  Httle  chestnut.  Excellent  reproduction  of  white  ash,  birch  and  oak 
is  already  on  the  ground.     The  stand  should  be  cut  clear. 


The  hardwood  type  is  almost  identical  with  the  same  type  of 
the  spruce  region,  having  much  the  same  composition  and  occu- 
pying the  same  kind  of  site.  But  from  being  a  type  of  secondary 
importance  it  becomes,  in  the  northern  hardwoods  region,  the 


THE   NORTHERN   HARDWOODS   REGION  27 1 

leading  type.  A  similar  relation  can  often  be  observed  between 
types  of  two  adjacent  forest  regions,  one  or  more  types  being  the 
same  in  each  of  the  two  regions,  but  their  relative  importance 
being  vastly  different  from  region  to  region. 

Sugar  maple,  beech,  and  yellow  birch  are  the  chief  trees,  aver- 
aging together  at  least  sixty  per  cent  of  the  type  (sugar  maple, 
thirty  per  cent,  beech  and  yellow  birch  together,  thirty  per 
cent),  while  beech  and  sugar  maple  in  individual  stands  often 
greatly  exceed  the  percentages  given,  sometimes  occurring  nearly 
pure.  Other  hardwoods  constitute  about  thirty  per  cent,  while 
conifers  do  not  exceed  ten  per  cent,  sometimes  being  entirely 
absent,  especially  in  the  heavily  lumbered  stands.  Hemlock  is 
the  most  common  conifer. 

On  account  of  the  deep  fertile  soil  an  excellent  quality  of 
timber  can  be  produced.  In  many  cases,  however,  the  best 
trees  have  been  removed,  leaving  the  defective  individuals;  thus, 
at  present,  there  are  many  poorly  stocked  stands  in  the  type, 
which  are  not  producing  the  quantity  nor  the  quality  of  timber 
of  which  they  are  capable. 

Excellent  reproduction  occurs  wherever  any  opening  admits 
light  to  the  forest  floor,  sugar  maple,  yellow  birch,  and  beech  all 
being  prolific  seeders.  The  maple  excels  the  others,  and  is  gradu- 
ally increasing  in  proportion  as  a  result  of  cutting  and  subsequent 
reproduction.  White  ash  reproduces  well  after  cuttings  and  like 
the  maple  is  increasing  in  proportion.  In  second-growth  stands 
after  heavy  cuttings  some  of  the  reproduction  is  of  sprout 
origin,  but  the  old  hardwoods  do  not  sprout  satisfactorily  when 
cut,  and  the  younger  trees  are  only  average  sprouters  in  this 
region. 

The  soil  cover  of  deciduous  leaves  presents  an  unfavorable 
condition  for  the  reproduction  of  conifers,  hemlock  being  the 
most  successful.  This  is  the  main  reason  why  the  proportion  of 
conifers  in  the  t>^e  decreases  after  a  cutting.  Both  the  even- 
aged  and  the  uneven-aged  forms  of  forest  occur  in  the  hardwood 
type.  The  virgin  stands  and  those  which  have  been  culled  over 
one  or  more  times  approach  the  uneven-aged  form.     Areas  on 


272  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

which  clear  cutting  or  a  very  heavy  cutting  has  been  practiced 
are  now  stocked  with  approximately  even-aged  stands.  In  some 
cases  such  stands  are  extremely  regular  and  even-aged  in  form. 

2.  Swamp.  —  This  is  not  a  type  of  large  area  and  is  of  only 
minor  commercial  importance.  The  name  indicates  the  charac- 
ter of  the  site  on  which  the  type  occurs,  the  most  unfavorable  for 
tree  growth  to  be  found  in  the  region.  The  type  may  be  divided 
into  two  sub-types:  {a)  hardwood  swamp,  and  {h)  softwood 
swamp. 

(a)  The  hardwood  swamp  is  the  more  important  of  the  two. 
Originally  there  were  some  conifers  in  most  of  the  swamps,  but 
cutting  has  excluded  them  from  many  stands.  Black  ash  and 
soft  maple  are  the  most  abundant  and  important  hardwoods 
though  neither  of  them  can  be  classed  as  high-grade  timber  trees; 
and  the  excessive  water  supply  prevents  the  best  growth.  Re- 
production is  poor  and  confined  largely  to  sprouts. 

{h)  The  softwood  swamp  is  similar  to  that  of  the  spruce 
region,  except  that  it  contains  a  greater  per  cent  of  hardwoods. 
Spruce,  balsam,  and  tamarack  are  the  chief  conifers.  Arbor- 
vitae  is  not  a  common  tree  in  this  type.  With  the  softwoods 
there  is  a  mixture  of  black  ash,  soft  maple,  and  other  hardwoods. 
The  conifers  here  originally  furnished  considerable  merchantable 
material,  but  they  have  been  largely  removed  and  hardwood 
reproduction  rather  than  softwood  has  followed.  It  is  much 
harder  for  softwoods  to  reproduce  in  the  swamp  type  here  than 
in  the  spruce  region,  because  of  the  large  percentage  of  hardwoods 
in  the  stand,  resulting  in  unfavorable  seed-bed  conditions  for 
the  conifers. 

3.  Birch  and  Poplar.  —  This  temporary  type  is  similar  to 
the  type  of  the  same  name  in  the  spruce  region,  but  is  rela- 
tively of  much  less  importance  in  this  region.  Its  distribution 
does  not  depend  on  any  particular  kind  of  soil  or  situation, 
but  on  the  location  of  burned-over  areas.  A  recent  burn  with 
the  mineral  soil  exposed  and  plenty  of  light  admitted  is  apt  to 
reproduce  to  stands  of  this  type,  which  are  composed  chiefly 
of  paper  and  yellow  birch  and  poplar.     Under  these  intolerant 


THE   NORTHERN   HARDWOODS   REGION  273 

species  with  their  Hght  shade  reproduction  of  sugar  maple  and 
often  of  hemlock  and  spruce,  if  seed  trees  are  present,  soon 
takes  place.  Finally  with  the  maturity  of  the  paper  birch  and 
poplar  the  sugar  maple  comes  into  control,  though  usually 
the  yellow  birch  in  the  stand  persists  with  the  maple.  The 
reversion  from  the  birch  and  poplar  type  to  the  original  hard- 
wood type  is  then  complete.  The  sugar  maple  and  hemlock 
play  a  part  identical  in  principle  with  that  played  by  spruce  and 
balsam  in  the  spruce  region.  There  it  will  be  remembered  the 
birch  and  poplar  type  was  slowly  reproduced  to  spruce  and 
balsam  and  finally  reverted  to  one  of  the  original  and  permanent 
types.  In  the  northern  hardwoods  region,  sugar  maple  and,  to 
a  limited  extent,  hemlock  accomplish  the  same  end.  The  birch 
and  poplar  type  is  even-aged  in  form. 

4.  Old-Field  Hardwoods.  —  This  type  occurs  on  lands  once 
used  for  agriculture  and  now  abandoned.  It  is  important  since 
there  are  large  areas  in  the  aggregate  of  land  formerly  cultivated. 

The  composition  is  of  mixed  hardwoods,  particularly  hard 
maple,  yellow  and  paper  birch  and  white  ash.  Oftentimes  pure 
stands  of  maple  or  birch  are  seen,  and  the  species  do  not  differ 
materially  from  those  in  the  hardwood  type,  except  for  the 
absence  of  the  heavy-seeded  beech,  whose  seed  is  not  easily 
scattered  over  the  open  fields.  The  proportion  of  white  ash  is 
often  greater  than  in  the  hardwood  type.  The  stands  of  old- 
field  hardwoods  are  all  young  or  middle-aged,  for  two  reasons; 
first,  because  most  of  the  so-called  abandoned  farm  land  was 
abandoned  within  the  last  fifty  years,  and  second,  because 
stands  of  this  type,  as  they  pass  middle-age  resemble  more  and 
more  the  original  hardwood  type,  and  often  cannot  be  distin- 
guished from  it.  They  are  more  even-aged  in  form  than  a  re- 
peatedly culled  stand  of  the  hardwood  type,  but  this  distinction 
may  not  serve  to  separate  them  from  stands  of  the  hardwood 
type  which  have  been  heavily  cut.  Indeed,  an  old  field  may  seed 
up  very  irregularly  and  present  from  the  beginning  the  appear- 
ance of  an  uneven-aged  stand.  In  most  cases  there  is  little  if 
any  practical  advantage  in  keeping  the  two  types  separate  except 


274 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


for  the  first  forty  to  fifty  years  of  the  rotation.     Older  stands 
should  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  hardwood  type. 


Fig.  93.  —  An  old  field  which  seeded  up  to  hardwood  and  now  contains  an  irregular  stand 
of  yellow  birch,  cherry  and  maple.  The  larger  trees  should  be  cut.  (Liberation 
cutting.) 

5.  Old-Field  Conifers.  ■ —  This  is  another  old-field  type,  not 
so  important  in  area  as  the  previous  one,  but  of  considerable 
value,  due  to  the  coniferous  timber  which  it  furnishes.  This 
type  is  found  only  in  the  higher  portions  of  the  region  where  the 
soil  is  apt  to  be  less  thoroughly  drained  than  is  that  on  which 
the  old-field  hardwoods  occur.  Spruce  is  the  principal  conifer 
in  the  type,  often  forming  pure  stands  and  occupying  most  of  the 


THE   NORTHERN   HARDWOODS   REGION 


275 


acreage.  Tamarack,  hemlock,  and,  in  northern  Vermont,  arbor- 
vitae  and  white  spruce  occasionally  seed  up  the  old  fields;  and 
stands  of  white  pine  also  rarely  occur.  It  may  seem  strange 
that,  in  a  region  so  dominated  by  hardwoods  as  this  one  is, 


Fig.  94.  —  Old  highway  and  field  seeding  up  to  spruce. 


pure  stands  of  conifers  should  occur  on  the  old  fields,  but  their 
presence  is  made  possible  by  the  change  in  seed-bed  conditions. 
In  the  absence  of  the  thick  layer  of  hardwood  leaves,  favorable 
conditions  for  coniferous  reproduction  often  exist  on  the  old 
fields. 

The  type  is  only  temporary  for  no  pure  stand  of  conifers  can 
maintain  its  existence  in  the  region  if  the  natural  forces  are  left 
undisturbed.     As  soon  as  openings  appear  in  the  stand,  and 


276  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

sometimes  even  before,  seedlings  of  sugar  maple  and  other  toler- 
ant hardwoods  spring  up.  They  prevent  softwood  reproduction 
and  will  finally  cause  the  type  to  revert  to  the  hardwood  type. 

Methods  of  Handling  the  Forest. 

Both  intensive  and  extensive  management  can  be  practiced 
in  the  northern  hardwoods  region.  There  are  more  opportu- 
nities for  intensive  methods  than  in  the  spruce  region,  owing 
to  the  broken  distribution  of  the  forest,  interspersed  by  farms, 
and  the  greater  local  population.  Much  of  the  territory,  how- 
ever, is  so  situated  that  only  rough  methods  are  yet  applicable. 

In  management  a  few  of  the  more  valuable  hardwoods  and 
those  best  adapted  to  the  site  should  be  favored.  An  effort 
should  be  made  to  increase  their  representation  as  compared 
with  the  inferior  species. 

The  trees  to  favor  are  sugar  maple,  white  ash,  yellow  birch, 
basswood,  and  red  oak  where  it  occurs.  Beech  is  a  less  desirable 
tree. 

The  greater  part  of  the  territory  will  have  to  be  kept  under 
hardwood  forest  for  the  present  generation  at  least.  In  the 
sections  where  intensive  methods  are  possible  it  may  be  advisable 
to  gradually  change  the  most  poorly  stocked  portions  of  the 
forest  from  hardwood  into  coniferous  stands.  This  can  only  be 
done  by  planting.  While  the  hardwood  species  now  dominating 
the  forest  (sugar  maple,  yellow  birch,  and  beech)  are  well  adapted 
to  the  site  and  reproduce  excellently,  they  are  not  rapidly  growing 
trees  and  do  not  furnish  timber  of  such  high  average  value,  nor 
as  large  yield  per  acre,  as  such  species  as  white  pine  and  spruce, 
which  could  be  planted.^  White  ash  and  basswood  are  rapid 
growing  species  and  their  lumber  is  in  demand  for  certain  in- 
dustries, hence  special  care  should  be  taken  to  encourage  them  in 
preference  to  all  other  hardwoods.  They  are  recommended  for 
extensive  planting.  White  pine,  Norway  spruce,  and  European 
larch  are  the  conifers  rehed  on  for  general  planting.     There  will 

1  See  Chapter  on  Planting,  where  a  fuller  explanation  of  the  advantages  of 
conifers  over  hardwood  trees  is  given. 


THE   NORTHERN    HARDWOODS   REGION 


277 


be  a  comparatively  small  demand  for  species  adapted  to  sterile, 
sandy  sites,  as  little  of  such  land  occurs  in  this  region.  Norway 
pine  can  be  advantageously  mixed  in  the  plantations  of  white 
pine  as  a  precaution  against  the  various  enemies  of  the  latter. 
European  larch  is  another  good  tree  for  planting  on  the  well- 
drained,  fertile  soils  of  the  hardwood  type. 

Naturally  the  first  sites  planted  will  be  the  vacant  fields  not 
now  used  for  agriculture.     When  this  class  of  land  is  stocked  the 


Fig.  95.  —  A  field  in  Vermont  on  which  shifting  sand  is  encroaching.    The  sandy  lands 
from  which  the  sand  comes  should  be  fixed  by  planting. 


planting  of  poorly  stocked  hardwood  land,  where  handled  in- 
tensively, can  be  started.  The  method  of  planting  this  class  of 
land,  using  only  a  few  hundred  plants  per  acre,  is  described  in 
the  Chapter  on  Planting. 

I.  Hardwood.  —  In  handling  stands  of  this  type  the  selec- 
tion system  will  give  satisfactory  results.  The  species  to  be 
favored  (ash,  sugar  maple,  yellow  birch,  basswood,  and  red  oak) 
are  easily  managed  under  this  method,  as  they  are  either  very 
tolerant  or  fairly  so.     Ash  is  the  least  tolerant  of  those  men- 


278  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

tioned.  Moreover,  they  all  reproduce  well  in  small  openings 
such  as  would  be  made  by  a  selection  cutting.  The  cutting  can 
be  based  on  a  diameter  limit  of,  say,  twelve  inches  breast  high, 
but  the  trees  to  come  out  should  be  carefully  selected  and  marked 
without  strict  adherence  to  this  limit. 

Such  a  system  can  be  used  in  the  most  remote  sections  of  the 
region.  Where  markets  are  better  a  thinning  among  dense, 
even-aged  clumps  of  middle-aged  growth  should  accompany  the 


Fig.  96.  —  Open  land  too  ledgy  for  pasture  in  the  northern  hardwoods  region;   should  be 
planted. 

selection  cutting.  All  large  trees  so  defective  as  to  be  of  no 
timber  value  should  be  cut  and  put  into  cordwood.  Under 
present  methods  of  cutting,  these  trees  are  ordinarily  left  where 
they  take  up  much  of  the  crown  space  and  greatly  reduce  the 
growing  power  of  the  tract.  Too  many  examples  can  be  found 
of  stands  half  stocked  because  of  the  presence  of  such  trees. 
Trees  of  this  class  are  hard  to  cut  and  work  up  into  cordwood, 
and  oftentimes  it  requires  considerable  efTort  to  get  the  work 
done,  for  the  average  lumberman  would  rather  claim  that  it  is 
impossible  than  make  a  trial  to  learn  the  cost. 


THE   NORTHERN   HARDWOODS   REGION  279 

Many  of  the  second-growth  stands  in  the  type  are  even-aged 
in  nature.  Where  such  stands  are  well  situated  with  reference 
to  markets  they  can  be  handled  on  the  shelterwood  system,  and 
thinned  at  regular  intervals  during  the  rotation.  An  excellent 
grade  of  cord  wood  can  be  secured  from  these  thinnings. 

The  length  of  rotation  for  the  hardwood  type  must  be  at  least 
seventy  to  one  hundred  years.  It  is  only  with  the  faster  growing 
species  such  as  white  ash,  basswood,  and  red  oak  that  a  seventy- 
year  rotation  can  be  used.  The  slower  growing  hardwoods 
require  one  hundred  years  or  more  to  reach  maturity. 

Where  the  stand  is  pure  sugar  maple,  or  contains  a  consider- 
able per  cent  of  this  species,  it  may  often  be  desirable  to  handle 
the  type  as  a  sugar  orchard  for  the  production  of  maple  sugar 
and  syrup.  To  accomplish  this  somewhat  different  treatment 
is  required  from  that  given  the  type  when  timber  production  is 
the  aim.  Pure  stands  of  maple  are  wanted  in  this  case  and  in 
all  the  cuttings  other  species  should  be  removed,  favoring  the 
maple  and  encouraging  it  to  seed  all  openings.  The  amount 
of  sap  secured  from  a  maple  tree  is  proportional  to  the  size  of 
the  crown,  i.e.,  to  the  leaf  surface.  Bearing  this  in  mind,  it 
might  appear  as  though  the  aim  should  be  to  encourage  the 
development  of  a  very  few  broad  spreading  trees,  possibly  three 
or  four  to  the  acre.  This  would  be  going  to  an  extreme.  For 
what  is  really  wanted  is  the  greatest  amount  of  sap  production 
from  a  given  area.  This  will  not  necessarily  be  secured  from  a 
very  few  large  trees,  but  rather  from  a  number  of  moderate  sized 
trees  so  spaced  that  the  greatest  amount  of  leaf  surface  is  de- 
veloped. Tall  trees,  fairly  slender  for  their  height,  but  with 
dense  crowns  which  nearly  reach  the  ground,  represent  the  ideal, 
which  calls  for  a  sacrifice  of  the  clear  length  of  the  bole,  so 
desirable  in  a  timber  tree. 

The  chief  difference  in  handling  for  sap  production  as  against 
lumber  production  is  that  in  the  former  a  tree  with  the  longest 
possible  crown  is  wanted,  while  for  the  latter  a  tree  with  the 
longest  possible  clear  length  is  desired. 

Wherever  the  stand  approaches  an  even-aged  form  thinnings 


28o 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


should  be  made.  In  these  thinnings  gaps  of  from  ten  to  twelve 
feet  should  be  left  between  trees  in  young  and  middle-aged  stands. 
In  older  stands  somewhat  wider  gaps  have  to  be  made,  owing  to 
the  crown  development  of  the  individual  trees.  This  calls  for 
a  heavier  thinning  than  would  be  used  for  the  production  of 
lumber.  It  makes  possible  the  development  of  a  good  crown 
nearly  to  the  base  of  the  tree.  In  a  sugar  orchard  so  much 
depends  on  the  size  of  the  crown,  that  thinnings  to  develop  good 


Fig.  97.  —  A  maple  sugar  orchard. 


crowns  are  advisable  even  in  stands  so  young  as  to  yield  no  mer- 
chantable material  in  the  cutting.  A  method  advocated  by  the 
United  States  Forest  Service/  is  to  make  the  first  thinning  in 
a  dense  thicket  of  young  maples  when  the  trees  are  only  six  to 
eight  feet  high.  It  is  done  by  selecting  the  more  promising  in- 
dividuals, spaced  about  10  feet  apart,  and  cutting  off  the  tops  of 
all  the  other  trees.  This  can  be  done  quickly  with  a  bush  hook 
or  other  tool.  Cutting  back  the  tops  a  couple  of  feet  frees  the 
selected  trees  sufficiently  to  enable  them  to  forge  ahead  of  the 

'  See  Bulletin  No.  59,  "The  Sugar  Maple  Industry." 


THE  NORTHERN   HARDWOODS    REGION 


281 


others.     Of  course  only  a  very  young  stand  can  be  economically 
thinned  in  this  way. 

Frequently  the  owner  of  a  sugar  grove  considers  it  desirable 
to  keep  down  reproduction  and  undergrowth  with  the  idea  of 
making  the  interior  of  the  stand  as  open  as  possible,  —  because 
then  men  and  teams  can  get  around  and  collect  the  sap  more 
easily.     Grazing  animals  are  sometimes  turned  in  to  accompHsh 


Fig.  98.  —  A  pure  bland  uf  yuung  hard  nuiple  in  which  a  hr^l  thinning  has  been  made, 
reducing  the  number  of  trees  per  acre  from  4000  to  2000.  The  product  of  the  thinning 
was  too  small  to  be  merchantable. 


this  purpose.  Such  an  opening  up  of  the  stand  is  a  mistake  and 
true  forest  conditions  should  be  maintained  for  two  reasons, 
first,  because  sugar  maple  needs  forest  conditions,  especially 
a  thick,  moist  leaf  litter  underneath,  for  thrifty  development, 
and  second,  because  for  the  longest  and  largest  yield  of  sap  the 
ground  should  be  protected  from  sudden  thaws  and  kept  frozen 
as  long  as  possible  and  this  is  best  accomplished  by  the  thick  leaf 
litter  and  heavy  undergrowth.  Reproduction  should  be  encour- 
aged in  all  openings  and  allowed  to  develop.  Later  on  it  may  be 
needed  to  replace  some  older  trees  which  have  been  injured. 


282 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


Another  way  in  which  the  silvicultural  conditions  of  sugar- 
maple  groves  may  be  improved,  is  by  leaving  the  edges  of  the 
stand  (when  making  a  thinning),  very  dense,  wherever  it  is 


Fig.  99.  —  The  hardwood  type.     A  middle-aged  stand  of  even-age  marked  for 
a  heavy  thinning. 


bordered  by  open  fields.  Often  these  groves,  and  in  fact  stands 
of  all  types,  occur  as  small  patches  surrounded  by  open  land. 
If  a  thinning  made  in  such  a  stand  is  carried  out  to  the  very  edge, 
the  stand  is  opened  up  on  the  sides  to  the  entrance  of  sun  and 
wind.     The  moisture  conditions  of  the  soil  cover,  so  favorable 


THE   NORTHERN   HARDWOODS   REGION  283 

for  the  best  production  of  sap  and  indeed  for  the  growth  of  the 
sugar  maple  are  then  disturbed. 

2.  Stvamp.  —  The  swamps  furnish  the  most  difficult  silvicul- 
tural  problem  of  all  the  types.  This  is  because  it  is  hard  to  get 
good  natural  reproduction  on  these  sites.  Under  present  meth- 
ods of  cutting  the  softwoods  are  removed  as  well  as  the  good 
hardwoods.  Soft  maple,  to  which  species  the  wet  land  is  no 
great  hindrance,  and  other  inferior  species  are  then  apt  to  get 
possession  of  the  cut-over  land.  To  keep  the  poorer  species  out 
greater  care  must  be  taken  in  the  cuttings  to  leave  plenty  of 
seed  trees,  softwoods  preferably. 

The  swamp  land  is  the  site  which  can  best  be  devoted  to  soft- 
woods, for  they  will  reproduce  better  here  and  produce  a  better 
quality  of  timber  than  the  hardwood  species.  Trees  like  sugar 
maple  and  beech  will  not  grow  in  poorly-drained  swamp  soil,  but 
the  competition  of  inferior  species  like  soft  maple  combined  with 
close  cutting  is  driving,  or  has  driven,  the  softwoods  from  many 
swamps. 

The  best  way  to  bring  the  swamps  into  productive  condition 
is  to  plant  softwoods  hke  spruce  after  cutting  clear.  Often  this 
may  appear  too  intensive  an  operation  for  the  present,  in  which 
case  the  best  method  is  to  remove  only  the  largest  softwoods 
leaving  several  trees  of  seed-bearing  age  to  an  acre,  at  the  same 
time  cutting  out  all  hardwoods  to  the  smallest  size  the  markets 
allow,  either  for  cordwood  or  charcoal. 

Where  no  softwoods  remain  and  the  ground  is  already  stocked 
with  such  trees  as  soft  maple  the  simple  coppice  system  may  be 
employed,  by  which  the  stand  is  cut  clear  and  a  new  stand 
secured  by  sprouts  from  the  stumps.  For  profitable  use  this 
requires  good  markets,  as  the  product  secured  is  nearly  all 
cordwood. 

3.  Birch  and  Poplar.  —  The  treatment  for  this  t>Tpe  has  been 
fully  described  under  a  similar  heading  in  the  spruce  region, 
which  should  be  consulted  for  details.  The  question  will  arise 
whether  it  is  more  advisable  to  maintain  the  birch  and  poplar 
permanently  or  to  allow  it  to  take  the  natural  course  and  revert 


284 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


to  the  original  hardwood  type.  Either  may  be  done.  The 
same  treatment  which  will  keep  softwoods  from  encroaching  on 
the  type  in  the  spruce  region  will  prevent  sugar  maple,  hem- 
lock, and  various  hardwoods  from  taking  possession  in  the 
northern  hardwoods  region. 

Where  there  is  a  ready  market  for  poplar  pulpwood  and 
excelsior,  and  for  paper  birch  as  spoolwood,  etc.,  as  was  the  case 
in  the  spruce  region,  it  will  be  profitable  to  maintain  the  type. 
Otherwise  it  should  be  allowed  to  revert  to  the  hardwood  type. 


Fig.  loo.  —  An  example  of  the  use  of  a  final  cutting  under  the  shelterwood  system.  A  pure 
even-aged  stand  of  young  hard  maple  with  a  few  old  trees.  These  large  trees  should 
be  removed. 

4.  Old-Field  Hardwoods.  —  This  type  may  be  handled  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  hardwood  t^-pe.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  the  two  types  differ  more  in  their  origin  and  form  than 
in  composition.  The  old-field  hardwoods  type  is  in  most  in- 
stances even-aged  while  the  hardwood  type  in  the  majority  of 
cases  approaches  an  uneven-aged  form. 

Its  even-aged  character  makes  the  type  well  adapted  for  treat- 
ment under  the  shelterwood  system.  Since  these  lands  were 
once  cleared,  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  they  are  not  in 
the  most  inaccessible  portions  of  the  region.     Hence  it  may 


THE   NORTHERN  HARDWOODS   REGION 


285 


often   be  possible   to  handle   the   type  intensively  enough   to 
warrant  the  use  of  this  system. 

5.  Old-Field  Conifers.  —  Here  again  the  treatment  advised 
for  a  similar  type  in  the  spruce  region  applies.  The  old-field 
conifers  type  is  mainly  composed  of  stands  of  spruce,  which  can 


Fig.  loi.  —  The  hardwood  type.  An  irregular  stand  marlced  for  a  selection  cutting  and 
tliinning  combined.  Ash  and  maple  are  favored.  Most  of  the  trees  removed  are 
beech. 


be  handled  in  the  manner  described  for  the  old-field  spruce  type 
in  the  spruce  region. 

Clear  cutting  and  replanting  is  especially  advised,  whether 
the  stands  are  spruce,  pine,  larch,  or  hemlock,  as  being  the 
simplest  and  in  reality  the  cheapest  method  of  reproduction. 


Logging  Methods  — Market  Conditions  - 
—  Ownership  of  Woodlands. 


Industries 


Logging  Methods.  —  Logging  is  conducted  in  small  operations, 
and  often  is  carried  on  by  farmers.  The  forest  is  too  broken  up 
by  cleared  lands,  and  too  Httle  virgin  timber  remains  to  permit 
operations  on  a  large  scale.  Owing  to  their  weight  it  is  necessary 
to  cut  the  hardwood  trees  into  short  logs,  rather  than  to  remove 


286 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


the  tree  in  one  log,  as  is  done  with  the  conifers  in  the  spruce 
region. 

The  logs  are  cut  in  the  fall  and  winter  and  hauled  out  on  sleds 
to  the  mills.  No  expensive  roads  are  constructed  for  this  work, 
ordinary  woods  roads  and  the  regular  highways  furnishing  satis- 
factory facilities.  The  tendency  of  the  hardwoods  to  sink  when 
driven  prevents  the  use  of  this  method  of  transportation,  even  if 


Photograph  by  J.  P.  Reed. 

Fig.  102.  —  One  of  the  many  small  water  powers,  furnishing  power  to  a  stationary  sawmill. 


drivable  streams  were  available.  Occasionally  the  logs  are 
shipped  by  rail  considerable  distances  to  a  mill,  but  usually  are 
delivered  on  sleds  to  mills  near  the  place  of  cutting. 

Many  small  mills,  both  portable  and  stationary,  are  distrib- 
uted throughout  the  region,  and  there  are  very  few  large  sawmills. 
In  the  early  days  of  settlement,  stationary  mills  were  installed, 
and  run  by  the  little  water  powers  which  are  here  so  abundant. 
With  the  development  of  the  country  and  general  utilization  of 
the  virgin  timber  larger  mills  were  occasionally  built.  These 
finally  were  crowded  out  by  the  exhaustion  of  extensive  bodies 


THE   NORTHERN   HARDWOODS    REGION  287 

of  timber  and  then  were  succeeded  by  many  portable  mills,  which 
could  be  transported  to  the  numerous  isolated  bodies  of  virgin 
timber.  As  this  timber  is  being  exhausted  and  the  bodies  of 
remaining  timber  are  each  year  averaging  smaller  in  size  the 
trend  is  again  toward  the  development  of  stationary  mills. 
When  timber  lies  in  comparatively  large  bodies,  with  many  such 
patches,  it  is  more  economical  to  employ  a  portable  mill  and  take 
it  into  the  timber.  When  the  timber  remaining  is  in  scattered 
small  patches  it  is  better  economy  to  have  a  stationary  mill  and 
bring  the  timber  to  it.  The  stationary  mills  where  run  by  water 
power  are  cheaper  to  maintain,  and  do  a  better  grade  of  work 
where  the  machinery  rests  on  a  permanent  foundation.  More- 
over, they  can  be  equipped  with  additional  machinery,  such  as 
planers,  small  resaws,  and  machines  for  sawing  special  products. 
Thus  the  stationary  mill  should  utilize  more  fully  and  more 
profitably  the  entire  log  than  can  the  portable  mill. 

Market  Conditions.  —  Transportation  facilities  are  reasonably 
well  developed.  No  point  is  twenty  miles  distant  from  a  rail- 
road in  a  direct  line,  while  fifteen  miles  is  an  exceptionally  long 
haul.  County  and  state  roads  penetrate  all  portions  of  the 
territory  and  make  it  possible  to  haul  timber  or  logs  by  team  to 
a  railroad  usually  in  less  than  a  day's  time.  While  the  region 
has  a  fairly  good  transportation  system,  yet  with  the  disappear- 
ance of  most  of  the  virgin  timber  and  the  great  inroads  on  the 
forest  lands  for  agricultural  use,  it  cannot  be  counted  on  to 
furnish  export  timber  in  large  amounts.  Agriculture  has  moder- 
ately populated  the  region,  so  that  there  is  a  good  local  demand 
for  forest  products  and  the  cut  is  seldom  in  excess  of  the  local 
demand.  However,  the  higher  grades  of  timber  are  shipped  to 
outside  markets  and  some  timber  is  imported. 

The  local  inhabitants  furnish  a  good  market  for  cordwood, 
as  well  as  for  timber.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  people 
scattered  through  the  country  at  a  distance  from  railroad  lines, 
because  coal  is  expensive,  while  cordwood  is  relatively  cheap 
and  of  a  high  grade, ^  and  also  because  the  winters  are  long  and 

1  Beech  and  sugar  maple  are  two  of  the  best  species  in  the  country  for  fuel  wood 


288 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


cold,  requiring  much  fuel.  Where  maple  sugar  is  made  a  large 
amount  of  poor-grade  wood  is  used  for  boiling  sap  and  as  a  result 
the  average  family  in  the  northern  hardwoods  region  burns  more 
wood  than  does  a  similar  family  in  the  white  pine  region  and 
nearly  twice  as  much  as  in  the  southern  hardwoods  region. 
This  is  a  great  help  in  utilizing  small-sized  material,  and  in 
making  intensive  methods  possible. 

Industries.     Lumber  Industry.  —  This  is  the  principal  forest 
industry  for  the  timber  cut  goes  on  the  market  mainly  as  lum- 


Fig.  103.  —  These  hardwood  logs  have  been  hauled  in  by  farmers  to  the  mill  pond,  where 
they  will  be  sawed  by  a  stationary  water  power  mill. 


ber.  There  is  nothing  like  the  pulpwood  industry  in  the  spruce 
region  to  compete  on  a  large  scale  for  the  unsawn  logs.  The 
principal  species  cut  are  hemlock,  birch  (chiefly  yellow),  maple, 
beech,  spruce,  basswood,  and  ash.  It  is  even  more  difficult  than 
in  the  spruce  region  to  get  exact  figures  for  the  cut,  owing  to  the 
irregular  form  of  the  northern  hardwoods  region  and  the  way  in 
which  it  cuts  across  state  and  county  hnes. 

Moreover,  there  are  no  species  cut  for  lumber  in  this  region 


THE   NORTHERN   HARDWOODS   REGION  289 

which  are  not  cut  in  far  greater  amounts  elsewhere  in  the  United 
States.  In  fact,  they  are  all  cut  on  a  commercial  scale  in  one 
or  more  of  the  other  New  England  forest  districts.  However, 
an  estimate  of  the  annual  cut  (based  on  census  figures  for  the 
year  1909),  would  place  it  in  the  neighborhood  of  250,000,000 
feet,  board  measure. 

Much  of  the  better  grade  of  hardwoods,  such  as  the  red  birch 
(as  the  red  heartwood  of  the  yellow  birch  is  called)  are  made  into 
high-class  flooring.  Many  mills  that  specialize  in  this  trade  are 
also  equipped  with  machinery  for  utilizing  the  poorer  grades, 
which  are  not  fit  for  flooring,  in  the  manufacture  of  such  small 
articles  as  clothespins,  novelties,  toys,  etc. 

Small  wood-working  plants,  manufacturing  various  articles 
such  as  bobbins,  novelties,  staves,  and  heading  for  slack  cooper- 
age, caskets,  tool  handles,  excelsior,  veneer  for  baskets,  etc.,  are 
abundantly  scattered  throughout  the  region.  They  buy  rough 
lumber  or  cut  small  quantities  of  wood  especially  for  their  own 
use.  None  of  them  especially  characterizes  tlie  region.  The 
wood  used  in  these  plants  would  largely  be  included  in  the 
figure  of  the  annual  lumber  cut  already  given. 

Maple  Sugar  Industry.  —  This  industry  gathers  and  manu- 
factures a  forest  product  and  is  therefore  a  forest  industry.  It 
characterizes  the  region,  although  extending  beyond  its  bounds, 
following  the  commercial  distribution  of  the  sugar  maple.  The 
spruce  region  of  New  England,  and  portions  of  New  York  and 
Ohio  are  the  only  competitors  in  this  industry  with  the  northern 
hardwoods  region.^ 

The  northern  hardwoods  region  is  the  most  important  one  for 
the  production  of  the  two  products,  maple  sugar  and  syrup. 
There  is  so  little  margin  of  profit  in  these  industries  that  they 
cannot  be  financially  profitable  except  when  carried  on  in  con- 
nection with  farming. 

The  summer-resort  business  is  one  which  brings  considerable 

^  The  sugar  and  syrup  produced  in  New  York  State  is  largely  produced  in  the 
extension  of  the  New  England  northern  hardwoods  region,  which  surrounds  the 
spruce  region  in  New  York  State. 


290  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

income  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  region,  but  it  is  of  less  volume 
and  does  not  assume  the  relative  importance  which  it  holds  in 
parts  of  the  spruce  region  where  many  people  are  dependent 
upon  tourists  for  their  summer  work.  Agriculture  is  the  lead- 
ing industry  of  this  section  and  furnishes  abundant  work  during 
the  tourist  season.  The  importance  of  the  forest  cover  in  at- 
tracting and  holding  summer  trade  is,  therefore,  much  less  than 
in  the  spruce  region. 

Strictly  forest  industries  are  seen  to  occupy  a  place  secondary 
in  this  region  to  agriculture.  There  is  also  considerable  devel- 
opment of  water  powers  for  manufacturing  purposes,  and  in  the 
Vermont  section  large  quarries  of  marble  and  granite  are  located. 
The  relative  place  in  value  of  output  held  by  manufacturing 
interests  with  respect  to  agriculture  and  the  lumber  industry 
is  difficult  to  determine,  but  it  is  probable  that  manufacturing 
exceeds  the  lumber  industry  in  value  of  annual  output.  To 
summarize,  it  may  be  said  that  the  northern  hardwoods  region 
is  an  agricultural  section  with  important  manufacturing  and 
lumber  interests. 

Character  of  the  Land  and  Timber  Ownership.  —  Ownership  of 
the  land  and  timber  in  small  holdings  is  the  rule.  It  is  a  forest 
region  characterized  by  so-called  woodlot  ownership,  i.e.,  the 
forest  areas  are  owned  mainly  in  connection  with  the  farms. 
Each  farmer  has  his  woodlot  but  these  lots  are  considerably 
larger  than  those  of  the  sprout  hardwoods  region,  often  com- 
prising several  hundred  acres  of  forest.  There  are,  of  course, 
many  forest  tracts  held  by  other  persons  than  farmers.  The 
larger  holdings  are  among  this  latter  class,  being  owned  princi- 
pally by  lumbermen  or  by  sporting  clubs  or  private  estates. 
There  are  still  comparatively  few  such  club  or  estate  owners, 
but  the  number  is  increasing,  —  there  being  a  decided  tendency 
for  wealthy  men  to  buy  up  rundown  farms  with  their  accom- 
panying woodlots. 

Lumbermen  as  a  class  of  permanent  land  owners  are  not 
prominent;  their  holdings  are  changing  continually,  through  the 
sale  of  cut-over  lands  and  the  purchase  of  timbered  lands. 


THE   NORTHERN   HARDWOODS    REGION  29I 

Holdings  of  between  5000  and  10,000  acres  are  considered 
large,  while  one  containing  more  than  10,000  acres  is  only 
occasionally  found. 

Title  to  the  land  and  timber  goes  together  in  practically  all 
cases,  except  where  stumpage  is  bought  for  immediate  cutting. 

Forest  Protection. 

Forest  Fires.  —  Surface  fires  characterize  this  region.  The 
litter  of  the  northern  hardwoods  forest  does  not  afford  oppor- 
tunity for  a  ground  fire,  as  did  the  accumulations  of  coniferous 
duff  and  moss  in  the  spruce  region,  and  crown  fires  are  of  rare 
occurrence  and  then  run  only  in  the  few  coniferous  stands. 

The  fires  are  worse  on  cut-over  lands  with  heavy  slash,  but 
are  by  no  means  confined  to  such  lands.  In  dry  times  surface 
fires  can  easily  run  through  virgin  stands,  feeding  on  the  leaf 
litter.  The  rapidity  with  which  hardwood  reproduction  springs 
up  on  cut-over  lands,  shading  and  keeping  the  ground  moist, 
soon  lessens  the  fire  danger.  The  most  dangerous  season  is 
ordinarily  considered  to  be  in  the  spring  and  fall,  but  a  httle 
earlier  in  the  spring  and  a  little  later  in  the  fall  than  is  the  case 
in  the  spruce  region.  In  reality  the  occurrence  of  drouths 
during  spring,  summer,  or  fall  determines  the  dangerous  season, 
for  a  drouth  in  midsummer  will  make  this  the  most  dangerous 
season.  The  hardwood  leaves  furnish  the  chief  fuel  for  the  fires, 
and  these  are  dried  out  easily  by  even  a  short  drought. 

The  chief  known  cause  of  forest  fires, ^  at  the  present  time,  is 
carelessness  in  burning  brush  while  clearing  land.  The  railroads 
are  the  principal  cause  of  fires  where  they  pass  directly  through 
woodlands,  but  fortunately  their  location  in  most  cases  does 
not  bring  them  in  close  contact  with  such  lands.  What  is 
true  of  the  Vermont  portion  of  the  spruce  region  is  true  quite 
largely  for  the  whole  northern  hardwoods  district,  namely,  that 
the  railroads  lying  in  the  main  valleys  have  belts  of  cleared  land 
adjacent  to  their  rights  of  way  and  are  therefore  responsible  for 

1  Forest  Fire  Statistics  for  the  northern  hardwoods  region  will  be  found  in  the 
Appendix. 


292  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

only  a  small  percentage  of  the  fires  of  this  region.  The  fires 
started  by  sportsmen  are  the  second  largest  in  number. 

Methods  of  Fire  Protection.  —  Fire  protection  in  this  region 
should  lie  with  the  town  and  state  authorities.  A  central 
authority  is  needed,  inasmuch  as  the  forest  holdings  are  of  small 
extent.  In  most  cases  an  organization  for  the  protection  of  a 
single  tract  only  would  be  very  expensive,  and  the  owners  are 
too  many  in  a  given  section  to  make  practicable  co-operative 
fire-protective  associations.  It  devolves,  then,  in  this  as  in  all 
woodlot  regions,  upon  the  towns  and  state  to  furnish  protection. 
This  can  be  best  accomplished  with  one  central  authority  (the 
state  forestry  department) ,  in  charge  and  working  through  local 
representatives  (the  forest-fire  wardens),  in  every  town.  The 
forest-fire  wardens  should  have  the  authority  to  patrol  in  dan- 
gerous fire  seasons,  as  well  as  to  attend  to  the  putting  out  of  fires. 
Unless  the  right  to  patrol  is  given  the  wardens  the  system  must 
lack  the  highest  efficiency,  because  not  directed  to  preventing 
the  start  of  fires. 

The  maintenance  of  lookout  stations  on  mountains,  while 
often  giving  excellent  results,  is  not  an  essential  part  of  the  sys- 
tem in  this  region,  since  the  country  is  well  settled  and  mountains 
with  extended  views  over  the  neighboring  country  are  relatively 
few.  The  farmers  with  short  views  over  their  immediate  neigh- 
borhood take  the  place  of  mountain  lookouts.  Telephones  are 
already  well  distributed  over  the  territory,  but  it  may  often  be 
advisable  to  extend  the  system  by  connecting  lines  with  farm- 
houses having  good  views  over  wooded  territory. 

Special  measures  for  the  disposal  of  logging  debris  are  not 
considered  necessary.  Coniferous  forests,  with  the  bad  slash 
left  after  logging,  are  notable  by  their  absence.  The  hardwood 
tops  decay  rapidly  and  do  not  make  a  bad  fire  trap.  Cordwood 
should  be  taken  out  of  the  tops  of  trees  felled  for  lumber  wherever 
it  can  be  done  without  financial  loss,  thus  leaving  the  stand  in 
excellent  condition  so  far  as  brush  is  concerned. 

In  fighting  fires  the  same  tools  are  useful  in  this  as  in  the 
spruce  region.     There  is,   however,   less  need  for  shovels,   as 


THE   NORTHERN  HARDWOODS   REGION 


293 


ground  fires  are  rarely  met  with  and  hence  deep  trenching  is  not 
often  needed,  and  unless  there  is  plenty  of  dirt  available  a  hoe 
or  rake  is  more  useful.  Surface  fires  are  principally  encountered 
and  in  stopping  them  a  narrow  fire  line  raked  or  hoed  clear  of 
leaves  is  often  all  that  is  necessary,  if  men  are  at  hand  to  beat 
out  fires  which  may  be  started  by  sparks  blown  across  the  fire 
line.  The  methods  of  fighting  ground  and  crown  fires  have  been 
previously  described. 


Fig.  104.  —  An  abandoned  schoolhouse,  which  indicates  more  strongly  than  the  abandon- 
ment of  a  single  house,  the  decrease  in  New  England's  rural  population  in  the  last 
50  years. 

Protectio7i  against  Grazing  Animals. — Damage  by  grazing 
animals  is  quite  prevalent  in  this  region.  Nearly  every  farmer 
has  a  few  cows  and  horses  which  are  turned  out  part  of  the 
year.  With  a  large  majority  of  the  farmers  dairying  or,  in  a  few 
cases,  the  raising  of  horses  and  sheep,  is  the  chief  business. 

The  injury  done  the  forest  is  not  well  recognized  by  the  land 
owners.  Cattle  are  especially  fond  of  browsing  on  sugar  maple 
seedlings  and  will  prevent  good  reproduction  of  this  important 
species  on  grazed-over  lands.     A  great  deal  of  the  land  now  for- 


294  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

ested  is  suitable  for  grazing  purposes  and  once  the  soil  cover  of 
leaves  is  opened  up  will  produce  a  growth  of  grass  even  under 
quite  a  stand  of  trees.  The  custom  too  often  is  to  allow  stock 
to  roam  over  open  pastures  and  through  woodland,  which  re- 
sults in  gradually  opening  up  even  a  dense  stand  and  helping  the 
advance  of  grass  throughout  the  wooded  area  to  the  exclusion 
of  reproduction. 

It  should  not  be  inferred  that  a  reduction  of  the  number  of 
grazing  animals  is  advised  in  order  to  prevent  damage  to  the 
forest.  Such  a  course  is  wholly  unnecessary  since  in  most  cases 
excluding  the  stock  from  the  forested  areas  will  not  make  neces- 
sary any  reduction  in  numbers.  The  feed  secured  under  forest 
trees  is  not  equal  to  that  obtained  on  a  well-kept  pasture,  and 
its  loss  is  often  not  felt  at  all.  However,  should  the  feed  outside 
the  forest  be  insufficient  to  support  the  stock,  the  best  site  now 
forested  should  be  cleared  and  put  into  pasture.  Better  eco- 
nomic results  will  be  secured  by  not  using  the  same  piece  of 
land  for  the  two  purposes.  Inferior  timber  production  in  both 
quantity  and  quality  is  the  result  of  grazing  in  woodlands. 
Poorer  forage  is  the  result  of  keeping  pasture  forested.^  The 
owner  should  determine  for  which  purpose  the  site  is  most  needed 
and  then  devote  it  to  that  purpose  unreservedly. 

The  influence  of  grazing  animals  is  felt  especially  on  fields 
not  cultivated  but  still  used  for  pasture.  A  few  animals  pas- 
tured in  such  a  field  may  not  be  able  to  wholly  keep  down  the 
hardwood  reproduction  which  is  striving  to  come  in,  but  they 
will  be  able  to  hinder  the  process  of  reseeding,  and  to  make 
the  new  forest  patchy  and  composed  of  limby,  big-crowned  trees 
of  inferior  lumber  value.  Under  such  circumstances  a  portion 
of  the  field  just  large  enough  for  their  needs  should  be  fenced  off 
for  the  cattle,  and  the  rest  of  the  field  allowed  to  come  up  to  a 
thick  stand  of  trees. 

In  this  way  a  good  pasture  and  a  good  forest  will  result, 

1  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  pastures  as  well  as  the  woodlands  are  not  scientifically 
handled  in  the  region.  That,  however,  is  outside  the  present  discussion.  The 
reader  is  referred  to  Circular  No.  49,  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 


THE   NORTHERN   HARDWOODS   REGION  295 

instead  of  a  combination  of  second-rate  pasture  and  open  forest. 
Most  of  the  partially  stocked  stands  at  present  in  the  old-field 
hardwood  type  owe  their  poor  stocking  to  the  influence  of  grazing 
during  the  period  of  reproduction. 

Protection  against  Insects  and  Fungi.  —  The  destructive  insects 
and  fungi  common  to  this  region  are  few  in  number.  The  forest 
tent  caterpillar  attacks  the  sugar  maple  and  is  now  the  most 
dangerous  enemy  of  the  kind  in  the  region  from  the  forestry 
standpoint,  but  its  ravages  have  not  recently  been  widespread 
nor  does  it  give  indications  of  becoming  a  serious  insect  pest  in 
the  forest.  The  work  of  the  forest  tent  caterpillar  is  described 
in  the  chapter  on  Insects. 

Watershed  Protection.  —  The  location  of  the  region  with  respect 
to  the  headwaters  of  New  England's  main  rivers  has  already 
been  shown.  As  a  result  of  its  location  below  the  headwaters  of 
these  rivers,  and  of  the  character  of  its  topography  and  other 
natural  features  the  region  does  not  require  a  forest  cover 
primarily  for  protection. 

Summary. 

1.  The  Northern  Hardwoods  region  is  an  agricultural  region 
with  important  lumber  interests. 

2.  It  is  a  hardwood  region,  characterized  by  northern  species 
and  stands  of  seedling  origin,  with  the  forest  mainly  in  woodlot 
holdings  of  a  larger  size  than  in  the  other  two  New  England 
woodlot  regions. 

3.  Much  land  now  forested  is  of  agricultural  value.  However, 
the  best  lands  have  been  cleared  and  the  farm  area  will  not 
increase  appreciably  in  the  near  future,  or  until  a  decided  change 
in  agricultural  conditions  takes  place. 

4.  Markets  for  forest  products  are  fairly  good,  better  than 
in  the  spruce  region,  but  poorer  than  in  the  other  two  regions. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

THE  WHITE   PINE   REGION. 

General  Considerations. 

Two  separate  sections  of  the  white  pine  region  are  recognized, 
one  of  small  extent,  lying  along  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Cham- 
plain;  the  other,  and  larger  portion,  extending  from  Connecticut 
and  Rhode  Island  through  Massachusetts  into  southern  Vermont, 
New  Hampshire,  and  Maine. 

In  comparison  with  the  two  previously  discussed,  the  white 
pine  region  occupies  a  lower  elevation.  A  glance  at  the  map  on 
page  197  will  show  that  the  white  pine  region  in  a  rough  way 
borders  the  seacoast,  with  the  northern  hardwoods  and  spruce 
regions  occupying  the  territory  behind,  which  is  of  a  more  ele- 
vated character.  Only  where  elevations  are  low,  as  in  the 
Champlain  valley  of  Vermont  and  in  the  upper  Connecticut 
River  valley  does  the  region  extend  any  distance  inland.^  A 
northern  latitude  reacts  in  the  same  way  as  elevation  in  limiting 
the  white  pine  region.  In  eastern  Maine,  even  along  the  coast, 
although  the  elevations  are  low  the  species  of  the  spruce  region 
prevail  rather  than  that  of  the  white  pine.  The  region  is  largely 
below  the  500-foot  contour,  there  being  very  few  peaks  where  it 
exceeds  2000  feet  in  elevation,  and  it  also  hes  below  the  torrential 
portions  of  the  main  rivers.  These  streams  have  descended 
from  the  mountains  and  high  plateaus  of  the  spruce  region 
through  the  hilly  and  broken  country  of  the  northern  hardwoods 
into  a  land  of  gentler  topography,  where  their  courses  are 
often  meandering  and  their  currents  sluggish.  There  are  numer- 
ous lakes  and  ponds,  especially  in  the  Maine  and  Central  New 
Hampshire  sections.     Many  extended  river  bottoms  occur  with 

1  The  limits  of  the  region  are  formed  not  so  much  by  the  proximity  to  the  sea 
as  they  are  by  the  lower  elevation  and  soil  conditions. 

296 


THE   WHITE   PINE  REGION  297 

sandy  plains  and  terraces.  Between  these  valleys  are  areas  of 
low  rolling  hills.  The  hills  are  highest  and  roughest  in  New 
Hampshire  and  Massachusetts  in  a  belt  east  of  and  paralleHng 
the  Connecticut  River.  A  larger  portion  of  swamp  land  is  found 
than  in  the  northern  hardwoods  region. 

Granites  form  the  predominant  underlying  rock,  but  the  bed- 
rock is  not  so  noticeable  as  in  the  spruce  region.  This  is  because 
glacial  and  river  deposits  in  enormous  quantities  have  been 
left,  obscuring  the  bedrock.  All  through  the  region  are  found 
glacial  soils  and  formations,  while  drumlins  and  moraines  of 
gravel  and  sand  are  characteristic  features.  The  soils  are  sandy 
and  gravelly  in  nature,  although  all  classes  are  found.  Sandy 
loam  is  the  most  common  soil,  but  many  areas  of  pure  sand  occur, 
as,  for  example,  in  extreme  southeastern  Massachusetts,  on  Cape 
Cod,  and  in  Plymouth  County.  Here  rolling  hills  of  sand  de- 
posited by  glacial  action  cover  nearly  the  entire  country.  These 
sandy  soils  are  free  from  surface  rock,  but  the  stiffer  soils  are 
in  many  cases  thickly  strewn  with  loose  stones.  On  the  whole 
the  soils  are  less  stony  than  those  of  any  of  the  other  three  New 
England  forest  regions. 

It  may  easily  be  inferred  that  a  region  characterized  by  such 
sandy  soils  will,  if  forested,  be  stocked  with  pines,  and  this 
occurs  here.  White  pine  is  the  chief  tree,  the  region  being  an 
optimum  one  for  it.  It  is,  however,  not  the  only  forest  region 
in  the  United  States  which  affords  conditions  for  the  best 
development  of  white  pine.  There  are  two  others,  one  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  Lake  States,  the  other  in  portions  of  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania. 

Much  of  the  better  land  has  been  cleared  so  that  the  forest  is 
broken  up  into  small  areas,  much  smaller  than  was  the  case  in 
the  northern  hardwoods  region.  Over  small  areas  in  the  higher 
and  more  hilly  portions,  or  on  the  worst  sandy  soils,  as  much  as 
eighty  to  ninety  per  cent  may  be  in  forest  or  waste  land.  The 
average,  however,  is  in  all  probabihty  about  forty  per  cent.  The 
forested  per  cent  may  be  expected  to  remain  about  the  same  or  to 
increase  slightly  rather  than  to  decrease  during  the  next  genera- 


298  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

tion.  There  are  to-day  large  areas  of  abandoned  farm  land  which 
will  be  reforested  by  natural  or  artificial  means  within  the  next 
few  decades.  This  land,  although  useful  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses, is  not  as  yet  needed.  The  opening  up  of  more  fertile 
western  lands  threw  it  out  of  cultivation  forty  to  eighty  years 
ago,  and  until  a  very  decided  agricultural  development  takes 
place  it  will  be  best  kept  in  forest.  The  very  sandy  and  gravelly 
soils  should  always  be  kept  forested,  and  this  class  of  land, 
together  with  swamps,  steep  slopes,  and  the  tops  of  the  higher 
hills,  constitute  the  true  forest  soils  of  the  region. 

While  white  pine  is  the  chief  tree  it  is  far  from  forming  the 
entire  forest,  as  there  is  often  a  mixture  of  hardwoods  and 
conifers.  The  pine  occurs  both  in  pure  stands  and  in  mixture 
with  the  hardwoods,  and  the  latter  often  form  pure  stands  with 
no  mixture  of  conifers.  Hemlock  and  pitch  pine  occur  as  im- 
portant conifers,  and  the  southern  white  cedar  {chamaecy paris 
thyoides)  is  present  in  commercial  quantities  in  the  swamps  of 
southeastern  Massachusetts. 

The  principal  hardwoods  are  red  oak,  chestnut,  soft  maple, 
gray  birch,  white  oak,  and  white  ash.  The  red  oak  found  com- 
mercially in  portions  of  the  northern  hardwoods  region  and  the 
chestnut,  an  infrequent  tree  there,  become  in  the  white  pine 
region  two  of  the  most  important  hardwood  trees.  As  a  general 
rule  the  pine  is  most  abundant  on  the  poorer  sandy  and  gravelly 
soils,  the  hardwoods  taking  the  lead  on  the  better  soils.  An 
exception  to  this  is  found  on  abandoned  farm  lands,  which  often 
seed  up  to  pure  stands  of  pine,  and  these  lands,  while  not  the 
best  in  the  region,  cannot  usually  be  classed  with  the  poor  sandy 
lands. 

The  inferior  species,  gray  birch  and  soft  maple,  are  two  of  the 
hardwoods  most  abundantly  found.  Indeed,  this  region  is  the 
optimum  one  for  the  development  of  gray  birch,  and  very  favor- 
able for  soft  maple.  Sugar  maple  and  yellow  birch  are  numeri- 
cally important  on  some  of  the  cooler  sites,  but  do  not  figure  as 
trees  of  general  commercial  importance.  The  white  oak  is  most 
abundant  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  Massachusetts  portion  of  the 


THE  WHITE   PINE   REGION  299 

region.  Hemlock  occurs  on  the  cooler  slopes  and  in  ravines, 
while  pitch  pine  is  confined  to  the  most  sterile  sandy  soils.  In 
some  localities  black  cherry  grows  and  when  present  is  a  valuable 
species. 

The  virgin  forest  is  a  thing  of  the  past  in  the  white  pine  region, 
many  areas  having  been  heavily  cut  over,  not  only  once  but 
two  or  three  times.  Clear  cutting  is  usually  practiced  and  has 
resulted  in  producing  stands  of  even  age,  which  give  the  forest 
its  characteristic  even-aged  form.  The  original  forest  was  of 
seedling  origin.  In  the  present  second-growth  forests  the  conifers 
are  of  seedling  origin,  but  among  the  hardwoods  sprout  growth 
has  quite  largely  replaced  the  original  seedling  growth.  Almost 
all  the  hardwoods  sprout  freely  in  this  region. 

Forest  Types. 

The  original  and  permanent  forest  types  are  less  prominent 
than  in  either  of  the  regions  already  considered.  Cutting  and 
forest  fires  have  caused  the  formation  of  many  temporary  types. 
The  former  has  been  heavier  and  both  have  been  repeated  a 
greater  number  of  times  than  in  the  two  regions  previously  con- 
sidered. In  other  words,  the  original  types  have  been  cut  oft" 
and  burned  over,  and  under  the  continued  action  of  these  agencies 
have  so  little  chance  to  reappear  permanently  that  temporary 
t>pes  occupy  the  greater  portion  of  the  area. 

There  are  eight  types  in  all,  classified  as  follows: 

Permanent  Forest  Types. 

1.  Hemlock. 

2.  Pitch  pine. 

3.  White  cedar  swamp. 

Temporary  Forest  Types. 

4.  Pure  white  pine. 

5.  Pine  and  inferior  hardwoods. 

6.  Mixed  hardwoods. 

7.  Soft-maple  swamp. 

8.  Waste  land. 


300 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


I.  Hemlock.  —  While  this  is  an  original  and  permanent  type 
it  is  now  found  as  second  growth  rather  than  in  virgin  stands. 
It  is  distributed  on  cool  slopes  and  ravines,  and  occurs  chiefly  in 
the  less-settled  portions  of  the  territory,  for  example,  in  the  New 
Hampshire  portion  west  of  the  Merrimac  River.  The  soils  on 
which  the  type  occurs  are  medium  to  fairly  good  in  quality,  but 
from  their  location  are  undesirable  for  farm  purposes.  None  of 
the  sandy,  gravelly  soils  are  occupied  by  the  hemlock  type. 


By  permission  oj  F.  F.  Moon. 

Fig.  105.  —  A  remnant  of  the  original  forest  in  the  white  pine  region.  This  is  a  mixed 
stand  of  white  pine,  hemlock,  and  hardwoods.  Heights  range  up  to  no  feet,  diameters 
to  38  inches. 


The  stand  is  a  mixed  one,  composed  of  hemlock,  white  pine, 
chestnut,  red  oak,  maples,  white  ash,  basswood,  and  white  oak. 
Hemlock,  while  oftentimes  forming  only  a  small  per  cent,  is 
always  present,  and  may  compose  as  high  as  fifty  per  cent  of  the 
stand.  In  other  stands,  chestnut  and  red  oak  may  make  up 
fifty  per  cent  of  the  stand,  and  occasionally  white  pine  is  simi- 
larly represented.  Hemlock,  however,  is  always  the  key  tree, 
serving  to  distinguish  the  type.  A  stand  containing  several  age 
classes  is  the  most  common  forest  form.     The  undergrowth  is 


THE   WHITE    PINE   REGION  301 

usually  not  dense,  but  is  of  witchhobble,  mountain,  and  striped 
maple,  and  has  much  the  same  character  as  the  hardwood  type 
of  the  northern  hardwoods  region,  to  which  it  bears  some  re- 
semblance. 

The  type  is  not  an  important  one  from  the  standpoint  of  area 
covered,  as  this  is  relatively  small.  The  timber  produced  is, 
however,  of  good  quality.  A  maximum  yield  of  from  25,000 
to  40,000  feet,  board  measure,  is  sometimes  secured  from  well- 
stocked  stands.  Such  stands  are  at  least  eighty  to  one  hundred 
years  of  age. 

In  stands  which  have  not  been  opened  up  no  reproduction 
occurs,  owing  to  the  density,  but  in  all  openings  a  good  reproduc- 
tion of  the  various  species  represented  in  the  stand  springs  up. 

2.  Pitch  Pine. — This  is  another  type  which  covers  only  a 
hmited  area.  It  is  restricted  to  the  poorest  and  driest  sandy 
soils,  and  is  most  prevalent  in  the  Saco  River  region  of  Maine, 
in  parts  of  New  Hampshire,  and  in  southeastern  Massachusetts. 
In  these  sections  quite  large  areas  of  the  type  exist;  elsewhere  in 
the  region  only  an  occasional  small  patch  is  found. 

Pure  pitch  pine  stands  are  typical.  Frequently  scrub  oak 
{quercus  pumila)  accompanies  the  pitch  pine.  This  is  especially 
noticeable  on  areas  which  are  repeatedly  burned  over.  Fires 
on  the  sandy  soils  of  the  type  are  altogether  too  common,  and 
have  made  the  present  stands  very  open  and  poorly  stocked. 

The  pitch  pine  reproduces  abundantly  in  all  the  openings,  and 
when  spared  from  fires  soon  fills  them  with  seedlings. 

The  value  of  the  type  as  a  timber  producer  is  small,  owing 
both  to  the  slow  growth  which  results  from  the  poor,  dry  soil, 
and  to  the  poor  quality  of  the  lumber  produced. 

3.  White  Cedar  Swamp.  —  Lying  in  small  isolated  patches  or 
as  narrow  belts  along  streams  and  ponds  are  swamps  in  south- 
eastern Massachusetts  stocked  with  the  southern  white  cedar 
(chamaecyparis  thyoides).^  The  type  is  an  intrusion  from  the 
southern  coastal  region,  and  is  of  extremely  limited  area  and,  in 

^  The  type  extends  in  bodies  of  commercial  size  as  far  north  as  the  outskirts  of 
Boston. 


302 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


this  region,  of  small  commercial  importance.     The  soils  are  very 
wet  and  covered  with  thick  deposits  of  sphagnum  moss. 

Sometimes  the  stands  contain  only  the  white  cedar,  but  usually 
have  a  mixture  of  soft  maple  growing  with  the  cedar.  Even-aged 
seedling  stands,  containing  a  remarkably  large  number  of  trees 
per  acre,  are  characteristic  of  the  white  cedar  swamps.  The 
growth  of  stands  in  this  region  has  not  been  thoroughly  studied, 
but  figures  taken  by  Pinchot,^  in  stands  of  the  same  t>pe  in 


By  permission  of  the  Massachusetts  Slate  Forester. 

Fig.  io6.  —  Pitch  pine  type  on  a  poor  site,  Cape  Cod,  Massachusetts. 

New  Jersey,  showed  as  many  as  3,500,000  young  seedlings  per 
acre,  at  twenty  years  over  10,000  trees,  at  forty  years  3500 
trees,  and  at  eighty  years  1000  trees  per  acre.  A  stand  of  pure 
white  pine  has  at  sixty  years  only  250  to  300  trees  per  acre. 
White  cedar  is  a  slow  grower  even  in  the  regions  suitable  for 
its  best  development,  while  in  the  white  pine  region  it  must  be 
classed  as  an  extremely  slow-growing  conifer.  Of  course,  the 
wet  site  has  an  important  influence  on  the  rate  of  growth. 
Referring  again  to  figures  secured  by  Pinchot  in  New  Jersey 
1  See  Annual  Reports  of  the  State  Geologist  of  New  Jersey. 


THE   WHITE    PINE   REGION  303 

cedar  swamps,  the  following  yields  for  fully  stocked  stands  are 
recorded : 

Sixty  years,  10,000  feet,  board  measure,  and  500  fence  rails. 

Eighty  years,  20,000  to  25,000  feet,  board  measure,  and  1500 
fence  rails. 

This  may  be  taken  as  a  maximum  yield  for  the  type  in  the 
white  pine  region. 


Fig.  107.  —  An  open  stand  of  white  pine  in  good  condition.  Many  of  ttie  trees,  as  seen  on 
the  left,  are  two-forked  and  branchy.  The  yield  is  not  so  good  in  quantity  or  quality 
as  can  be  produced. 

4.  Pure  White  Pine.  —  Commercially  this  type  is  the  most 
important.  In  area  it  is  exceeded  by  the  mixed  hardwoods  type 
and  probably  also  by  the  pine  and  inferior  hardwoods  type. 

Two  classes  of  land  may  be  occupied  by  the  type:  abandoned 
fields  and  lands  once  cut  clear.  Usually  the  type  is  confined  to 
small  scattered  patches.  While  classed  as  a  temporary  type  on 
some  situations  it  is  really  permanent.  This  is  true  on  some  of 
the  poorer  soils  which  in  the  original  forest  bore  stands  of  pure 
pine.     The  most  suitable  soils  are  sandy  or  gravelly  in  nature, 


304  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

but  often  soils  of  a  better  grade  are  seeded  to  stands  of  the  tjpe. 
This  is  especially  the  case  on  old-field  situations.  Well-drained 
soil  is  an  essential. 

White  pine  composes  eighty  per  cent  or  more  of  the  stand, 
while  mixed  with  it  in  small  numbers  may  be  found  occasionally 
almost  any  of  the  hardwoods  in  the  region.  Soft  maple  and  gray 
birch  are  perhaps  the  commonest  associates  of  the  pine. 

The  pure  white  pine  type  furnishes  a  fine  example  of  a  regu- 
lar even-aged  stand,  which  is  the  usual  form.  The  stands  are 
generally  free  from  undergrowth,  having  a  thick  soil  covering 
of  pine  needles.  Any  openings  are  stocked  with  reproduction, 
both  hardwood  and  pine  being  represented.  Sometimes  hard- 
wood reproduction  appears  in  quite  dense  shade  of  pine. 

More  investigations  have  been  carried  on  by  the  United 
States  Forest  Service  and  the  various  state  forestry  departments 
in  regard  to  the  pure  white  pine  type  than  for  any  other  type  in 
New  England.  As  a  result,  rehable  figures  are  available  for 
its  growth  and  yield.  All  the  figures  given  are  for  unmanaged 
stands  which  started  from  natural  reproduction.  Table  LV 
given  in  the  Appendix  shows  the  total  number  of  trees  per  acre, 
the  number  of  merchantable  trees,  and  the  average  height  of 
the  stand  at  different  ages.  The  rapid  lessening  in  numbers 
through  suppression  and  death  of  the  poorer  individuals  as  the 
stand  grows  older  is  noteworthy. 

Three  yield  tables  have  been  made  within  recent  years  for 
different  portions  of  the  region.  One  made  in  cooperation  be- 
tween the  United  States  Forest  Service  and  the  State  of  New 
Hampshire  is  for  the  New  Hampshire  section.^  Another,  for 
the  Massachusetts  section  of  the  region,  is  based  on  meas- 
urements taken  within  that  state.-  The  third,  made  by  the 
United  States  Forest  Service,  is  intended  to  apply  to  the  whole 
region.^ 

1  Published  in  the  Report  of  the  New  Hampshire  Forestry  Commission  for 
1905-1906. 

"^  It  is  issued  by  the  State  Forester  of  Massachusetts  under  the  title  of  "Forest 
Mensuration  of  the  White  Pine  in  Massachusetts." 

'  See  Forest  Service,  Bulletin  No.  63. 


THE  WHITE   PINE  REGION 


305 


The  yield  tables  secured  by  these  three  investigations  do  not 
agree  exactly  for  reasons  to  be  shown  later.  The  following  yield 
table  has  been  compiled  from  all  three  sources  and  will  bring  out 
their  differences.  The  figures  most  applicable  to  any  particular 
case  should  be  the  ones  used. 

It  will  at  once  be  seen  that  the  Massachusetts  figures  for 
feet,  board  measure,  are  much  higher  throughout  than  the  New 
Hampshire   data.      This  is  partly   to   be   explained  by  closer 


Fig.  108.  —  In  the  center  is  seen  good  reproduction  of  white  pine  on  an  old  field  bordering 
the  Connecticut  River.  The  seed  comes  from  the  neighboring  seed  woods  at  the  left 
and  right  of  picture. 


utilization  of  the  trees  in  the  Massachusetts  section  as  con- 
trasted to  the  New  Hampshire  section.  This,  however,  cannot 
explain  the  entire  difference,  which  must  be  accounted  for  through 
variation  in  the  character  of  the  timber  and  lack  of  a  sufficiently 
large  amount  of  data.  If  a  much  larger  number  of  trees  and 
plots  were  secured  in  each  of  the  two  localities  probably  the 
results  would  be  nearer  aHke. 

In  comparing  the  yield  in  cords  secured  in  Massachusetts  with 
that  obtained  by  the  United  States  Forest  Service  for  the  region 


3o6 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW   ENGLAND 


Q    M 

<  ^ 
tn. 


w 

w 

< 

S 

2; 

Q 
Pi 
< 

O 

H 

W 

u 

W 

fe 

H 

<  « 

< 

>H 

- 

H 

W  P^ 

?^ 

O 

(  ) 

tx, 

W 

2 

H 

-J 

g 

W 

6-, 

^  O 

r^ 

a, 

W 

H 

F- 

J 

< 

P<  ^ 

o  o» 

fe 

W 

-1 

eq 

< 

H 

Q 

h-3 

W 

m 

Its 

w    -1    OCO     LOrOVOO 

i-i    cs    rO  f^  "S-   lOO  OC 

>• 

a 

1 

i 

00     <N00     (NOOVOOOO     •* 

o  oo  loo  -.  vo  d  '^oo 

1-    i-i    ro  -^  vo  lOvO  O  O 

1 

jc8a88a8aa 

Oiooi^'    "   u^,^   Lo« 

M    ^^    ro  ro  ^  tT  'S- 

^     1 

§ 

OOOOOOOOOOOOOO 
loioo   voLoioLoO   'OO   "oo   O   "-o 

M    M    M    (N    t^rO-^^-^toiOiO 

1 

1 
s 

1 
u 

TfNOOooooo^tO     • 

O    M    O^CO    Tf  O    ^   t>  ro     • 

\ 

S,8  88  8  8?o88  : 

t--.  Lo  -^  c«  o^  lo  lo  pi^  o    ; 

o"  oT  ^  cj'  6^6  6   rovo"     • 
MOron-^iOLOio     • 

i 

! 

^       1 

a88a8a8S>8Po88Po8^ 

-^  (>(»  q  o_^  -^00^  lo  ^<xi^cc_^  looo  o  c 

roiodcOio«tCr-7rC«ir>c>^ro"c 
M«<Nroco^-*-ouo  lOO  O  O 

i 

1 

1 

i 

1 

M    O    ^O    O    o<    tM    rt-  <N      : 

>o^OOoo'-*Oror-^     ■ 
<N    -*0    t-  f^oo  CO    O  O     • 

1 

loOOO^OO^OOO      : 

OO^—    OOiooi^r^ 
-.    «    CO  Tl-  '^  >0  LOO  o       • 

Q.              ^ 

^"  1 

ooooooooooooooo 

O    O    O    lO  >o  <o  Lo  lo  O    lo  O    'O  O    O    'O 

"^.  ^  "   o^ "?  '^  t  ^  '^^.  °?  '^  ^'  '^  o 

•^CO     lOTfroOt^CN     l^i-H     lOO^  rOO     O 
w     (N     CO  Tj-    ■*    lO   lOO   vC   O     t^   1^00 

>i 

S 

loovoo-^oioo-ooi^ 
<N    ro  ^0  ^  •*   lO  loO  O    I^  !-■ 

^ 

OO 

o 

a 

THE   WHITE   PINE   REGION  307 

as  a  whole  higher  figures  are  shown  for  the  Massachusetts  section. 
Inasmuch  as  the  government  figures  are  average  for  the  whole 
region  they  might  be  best  compared  with  Quality  II  sites  in 
Massachusetts.  However,  it  is  beheved  an  average  site  for  the 
pure  white  pine  type  throughout  the  region  would  be  below 
Quality  II  (Massachusetts),  so  that  the  United  States  Forest 
Service  figures  should  be  lower  than  Quality  II  in  Massachusetts. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  the  Forest  Service  figures  start  at  twenty-five 


By  permission  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Forester. 

Fig.  109.  —  Pure  white  pine  type.     The  portion  seen  between  A  and  B  is  a  plantation. 
Yield  of  the  stand  about  38,000  feet,  board  measure,  per  acre. 

years,  practically  identical  with  Quahty  III  stands  as  given  for 
Massachusetts,  then  go  above  Quality  III  at  thirty  years,  and 
later  fall  below  Quality  III  from  thirty-five  years  until  after 
fifty  years.  At  fifty-five  years  the  Forest  Service  figures  give  a 
higher  yield,  and  in  five  years  more  they  have  jumped  up  and 
are  a  little  above  those  of  Quality  II.  This  indicates  a  growth 
tendency  for  the  first  sixty  years  entirely  different  from  the  New 
Hampshire  and  Massachusetts  figures,  which  in  relative  rate  of 
growth  are  alike,  although  differing  in  absolute  figures.  The 
government  figures  indicate  a  poor  utilization  in  young  stands 
and  would  seem  to  have  been  improperly  distributed  between 


3o8 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


qualities,  too  many  plots  of  Quality  III  being  taken  in  young 
stands  and  too  few  in  old  stands  to  give  average  figures.  These 
figures  are  too  low  for  ordinary  conditions  and  the  New  Hamp- 
shire or  Massachusetts  yields  should  be  given  the  preference. 
Except  for  the  closest  utilization  and  best  stands  it  will  be  safer 
to  employ  the  New  Hampshire  figures  or  an  average  of  the  New 


Fig.  no.  —  The  pine  and  iulLiiu;  haiLi.'.uvv,;,  i\i,L.  Iilil  .wu^iJM.ci  u.  Auiu-  pine,  gray  birch, 
poplar,  soft  maple,  and  alder.  The  pine  is  getting  ahead  of  the  hardwoods  but  has 
grown  in  too  open  a  stand  to  make  first  quality  lumber. 


Hampshire  and  Massachusetts  figures,  rather  than  the  latter 
figures  alone. 

An  idea  quite  commonly  held  is  that  the  dense  even-aged 
stands  of  white  pine  for  the  first  fifty  to  sixty  years  of  their  life 
yield  only  boxboard  material.  This,  however,  is  a  fallacy,  as 
stands  less  than  fifty  years  old  yield  much  material  better  than 
the  boxboard  grade.  There  is  Httle  clear  lumber,  but  it  contains 
small  sound  knots,  which  do  not  unfit  it  for  many  purposes  other 
than  boxboards.  The  poorest  boards  only  should  be  classed  as 
boxboards. 

5.  Pine  and  Inferior  Hardwoods.  —  In  area  this  is  the  second 
or  third  in  importance,  but  in  commercial  value  it  is  subordinate 


THE   WHITE   PINE   REGION  309 

to  the  pure  white  pine  type.  Old  fields  or  pine  land  which  have 
been  cut  clear  are  the  sites  on  which  the  type  occurs.  These 
are  the  same  situations  as  those  chosen  by  the  pure  white  pine 
type.     Sandy  soils  are  preferred. 

In  composition  the  stand  contains  pine,  gray  birch,  soft  maple, 
and  poplar,  all  Hght-seeded  species  and  capable  of  seeding  up 
open  lands.  Occasionally  oak  occurs  in  the  type.  Soft  maple  is 
most  abundant  where  the  soil  is  not  very  sandy.  Occasionally 
on  the  poorest  soil  pitch  pine  takes  the  place  of  white  pine.  Pine 
may  not  be  present  at  the  time  that  the  stand  is  starting,  but 
may  seed  in  underneath  the  hardwoods,  as  does  red  spruce  in  the 
spruce  region.  This  is  not  a  stable  association,  since  the  pine 
will  finally  kill  out  the  gray  birch  and  poplar,  by  passing  them  in 
height  growth  and  suppressing  them.  Soft  maple,  however,  due 
to  its  tolerance  and  rapid  growth,  is  on  the  better  and  moister 
soils  able  to  keep  up  with  the  pine.  On  poor  soils,  like  the  birch 
and  poplar,  it  may  be  crowded  out  by  the  pine.  The  pure  white 
pine  type  results  from  this  reversion.  The  percentage  of  the 
different  species  shows  great  variation  from  nearly  pure  stands 
of  any  one  of  the  four  to  complicated  mixtures. 

The  type  is  even-aged  or  occasionally  two  storied  in  form. 
The  question  might  arise  as  to  whether  this  type  is  not  an  original 
and  permanent  t>^e,  being  composed  of  pine  and  mixed  hard- 
woods, which  formed  the  bulk  of  the  original  forest.  But  the 
hardwoods  found  in  this  type  are  entirely  different  species  from 
those  prominent  in  the  original  mixed  forest.  The  hardwoods 
in  the  pine  and  inferior  hardwoods  type  are  light-seeded  species, 
all  but  soft  maple  being  relatively  short-lived,  and  all  of  low 
commercial  importance.  In  the  original  forest  such  hardwoods 
as  red  and  white  oak,  chestnut,  and  white  ash  were  mixed  with 
the  pine,  giving  the  stand  quite  a  different  character. 

In  the  pine  and  inferior  hardwoods  type  the  character  of  the 
growth  is  poor.  The  pine  develops  slowly  and  is  usually  branchy 
and  of  inferior  form.  Its  slow  development  is  accounted  for  by 
the  fact  that  the  hardwoods,  growing  more  rapidly  when  young, 
get  ahead  of  the  pine.     This  is  true  even  when  the  pine  and 


3IO 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


hardwoods  start  at  the  same  time,  and  since  the  pine  often  seeds 
in  a  few  years  after  the  hardwoods  the  latter  secure  a  considerable 
start.  Before  the  pine  can  work  its  way  up  through  the  hard- 
wood tops  its  stem  often  becomes  twisted  and  sometimes  the 
leader  is  killed  by  the  mechanical  rubbing  of  the  hardwood  Umbs. 
In  fact  the  cover  of  hardwoods  may  be  so  dense  or  have  such  a 
start  over  the  pine  that  the  latter  is  unable  to  pass  it  and  never 
amounts  to  anything.     Another  form  of  pine  found  in  the  type 


By  permission  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Forester. 

Fig.  III.  —  Sandy  lands  on  Cape  Cod  in  need  of  forest  planting. 

are  trees  with  branchy  crowns  widely  spreading  and  sometimes 
reaching  to  the  ground.  These  trees  are  in  poorly  stocked 
stands  where  seeding  of  hardwood  and  pine  was  not  sufficiently 
dense  to  insure  proper  natural  pruning. 

The  hardwoods  themselves  do  not  furnish  material  of  value 
except  as  cordwood.  Occasionally  there  may  be  a  small  use 
locally  for  other  purposes.  Thus  the  value  of  the  type  depends 
on  the  amount  of  pine  contained  in  the  main  stand,  i.e.,  which 
has  been  able  to  get  ahead  of  the  hardwoods.  The  yield  can 
usually  be  figured  as  a  certain  per  cent  of  what  a  stand  of  pure 
pine  would  give  at  that  age,  the  per  cent  being  identical  with  the 


THE   WHITE   PINE    REGION  311 

per  cent  of  the  area  actually  stocked  with  the  pine.  A  forty-year 
old  stand  having  ten  per  cent  of  its  area  in  pine,  the  rest  in  birch, 
poplar,  etc.,  would  be  estimated  to  have  ten  per  cent  of  the  yield 
of  a  pure  pine  stand  at  forty  years.  Usually  the  quaHty  of  the 
material  is  much  poorer  than  in  the  pure  pine  stands,  and  must 
be  classed  chiefly  as  boxboards. 

6.  Mixed  Hardivoods.  —  Without  doubt  the  mixed  hardwoods 
type  occupies  more  area  than  any  one  of  the  other  forest  types. 
In  commercial  importance  it  ranks  second  to  the  pure  white  pine 
type. 

It  occurs  chiefly  on  cut-over  lands  which  originally  bore  hard- 
woods or  a  mixture  of  hardwoods  and  conifers.  These  lands 
have  already  been  described  as  comprising  the  better  soils. 
Hence  the  type  will  be  found  on  the  richest  of  the  soils  now 
forested.  Occasionally  stands  of  this  t>'pe  gain  a  foothold  on 
old  fields,  though  ordinarily  such  fields  seed  up  to  pure  pine  or 
pine  and  hardwood  stands. 

The  proportion  of  sprout  to  seedling  trees  is  high,  and  sprout 
growth  may  be  said  to  characterize  the  type.  This  characteris- 
tic explains  why  the  type  is  classed  as  a  temporary  one.  The 
composition  is  the  same  as  in  portions  of  the  original  forest,  and 
on  the  better  soils  this  composition  would  not  change  greatly  if 
the  forest  were  left  untouched,  but  seedhng  stands  would  replace 
sprout  stands. 

A  great  deal  of  the  land  now  in  this  type  originally  had  a  mix- 
ture of  conifers,  which  have  disappeared  under  the  influence  of 
repeated  cuttings  and  fires. 

The  leading  species  are  chestnut,  red  and  white  oak,  white 
ash,  soft  maple,  and  gray  birch,  while  white  pine,  black  cherry, 
and  other  trees  occasionally  occur.  The  stands  are  usually 
thrifty  and  even-aged.  No  comprehensive  study  has  been  made 
of  the  yield  for  the  type,  but  sufiicient  figures  have  been  secured 
to  indicate  that  between  a  quarter  of  a  cord  and  a  cord  of  wood 
per  acre  per  annum,  varying  with  the  site,  can  be  expected. 

At  the  present  time  the  stands  are  cut  rather  young,  and  yield 
material  suitable  largely  for  the  rougher  grades  of  lumber  and 


312  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

for  cordwood.  Yields  of  good  grade  timber  can,  however,  be 
secured  from  stands  containing  chestnut,  oak,  and  white  ash, 
if  not  cut  too  young. 

7.  Soft  Maple  Swamp.  —  The  type  is  somewhat  similar  to  the 
hardwood  swamps  of  the  northern  hardwoods  region,  though  apt 
to  be  more  even-aged  in  form  and  to  contain  a  greater  per  cent  of 
soft  maple  sprouts.  Wet,  swampy  land  is,  of  course,  the  situa- 
tion on  which  the  type  grows. 

Pure  stands  of  soft  maple  are  often  in  evidence,  and  always 
soft  maple  is  the  chief  tree.  The  associated  species  of  impor- 
tance are  black  ash,  yellow  birch,  swamp  white  oak,  and  elm. 
A  great  difference  in  character  of  growth  can  be  observed  be- 
tween individual  stands.  Where  soft  maple  is  purest  the  growth 
is  often  rapid  and  the  stands  present  a  thrifty  appearance.  In 
other  instances  the  same  poor  and  stunted  growth  of  soft  maple, 
black  ash,  and  yellow  birch  in  open  stands  apparent  in  so  many 
swamps  in  the  northern  hardwoods  region  is  seen.  Variation 
in  moisture  and  soil  conditions  of  the  swamp  accounts  for  these 
differences  in  growth. 

The  best  swamps  of  pure  soft  maple  will  produce  a  yield  of  at 
least  one  cord  of  fuelwood  per  acre  per  annum. 

The  type  is  classed  as  a  temporary  one  because  of  its  sprout 
origin. 

8.  Waste  Land.  —  On  the  sandier  soils,  where  the  stands  were 
pure  conifers  or  nearly  pure,  cuttings,  followed  by  fires,  have 
often  resulted  in  leaving  the  land  bare  of  any  forest  growth. 
This  has  rarely  been  the  case  where  hardwoods  were  in  mixture, 
as  these  species  continued  to  sprout  even  under  severe  treatment. 

Enough  of  this  kind  of  land  exists  to  warrant  it  being  listed 
as  a  separate  type.  The  soils  are  among  the  poorer  class  and 
are  true  forest  soils,  although  now  bare. 

The  land  is  usually  covered  with  such  plants  as  scrub  oak, 
grass,  ferns,  and  various  shrubs,  but  not  with  trees.  In  some 
cases,  as,  for  example,  in  southeastern  Massachusetts,  areas  of 
almost  bare  sand  can  be  found. 

The  type  is  the  most  worthless  of  any  in  New  England^ 


THE   WHITE   PINE   REGION  313 

though  in  natural  productive  power  it  exceeds  much  of  the  land 
in  the  white  cedar  and  soft  maple  swamp  types.  The  land  can 
often  be  bought  for  fifty  cents  per  acre,  or  less. 


By  permission  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

Fig.  112.  —  The  waste  land  type.     Lands  which  have  been  repeatedly  burned  over. 

Methods  of  Handling  the  Forest. 
Intensive  management  is  possible  on  the  majority  of  tracts  in 
the  white  pine  region,  and  the  white  pine  is  the  tree  to  be  favored. 
The  purpose  of  the  management  should  be  to  replace  the  in- 
ferior species,  and  in  fact  many  of  the  better  hardwoods,  with 
stands  of  nearly  pure  white  pine.  A  small  mixture  of  such  hard- 
woods as  red  oak,  white  ash,  chestnut,  and  black  cherry  in  the 
stand  with  the  pine  is  better  than  pure  pine.  Such  a  mixture 
produces  a  few  hardwood  logs  of  fine  quahty  which  can  often  be 
sold  at  higher  prices  than  the  pine.  Improvement  cuttings  of 
various  kinds  are  practicable  and  should  be  made  where  needed, 
as  a  regular  part  of  the  management,  as  explained  in  the  special 
chapter  on  the  subject. 


314  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


By  permission  oj  the  U .  S.  forest  Service. 
Fig.  113.  —  Pine  and  inferior  hardwoods  type.     The  gray  birch  should  be  removed  and  the 
pine  allowed  to  develop  in  a  pure  stand.    See  next  picture. 

Planting  holds  in  this  region  an  exceedingly  important  place 
in  forest  management.  It  will  be  needed  mainly  on  waste  lands 
and  on  recently  cut-over  pine  lands,  but  also  on  cut-over  hard- 
wood lands,  to  replace  the  poorer  hardwood  species,  and  on 
portions  of  farms  no  longer  needed  for  cultivation  or  pasture. 
White  pine  and  red  pine  should  be  used  most  extensively. 

I.  Hemlock.  —  The  object  in  this  type  should  be  to  favor 
white  pine,  chestnut,  red  oak,  white  ash,  and  black  cherry  when 
present,  at  the  expense  of  the  hemlock.  An  even-aged  mixed 
stand  of  white  pine  and  hardwoods  with  a  mixture  of  hemlock 
should  result. 

The  clear-cutting  system,  with  reserves  of  scattered  seed  trees 
should  be  used  (see  Chapter  II  for  description).  These  seed 
trees  can  usually  be  taken  out  profitably  in  a  separate  operation 
when  reproduction  has  started.  Especial  care  must  be  used  to 
remove  all   the  hemlock,  as   otherwise  it   may  seed  in.     The 


THE  WHITE  PINE  REGION 

If 


315 


By  permission  of  Ihe  U,  S.  Forest  Senjt'ce. 
Fig.  114.  —  The  gray  birch  has  been  removed,  freeing  the  pine.     This  cleaning  yielded 
an  immediate  profit.    See  Fig.  113. 

chances  are  that  there  is  already  scattered  hemlock  reproduction 
in  the  stand  before  cutting.  This  develops  when  released  by 
the  cutting,  and  keeps  hemlock  in  the  mixture  although  no  seed 
trees  are  left.  It  will  be  very  hard  to  completely  eradicate  the 
hemlock,  but  it  can  be  kept  in  a  subordinate  position.  The 
young  hemlock  will  usually  be  outstripped  by  the  pine  and  hard- 
woods in  height  growth,  and  finally  take  the  place  of  a  tolerant 
understory.  As  such  it  serves  a  good  function  in  promoting 
natural  pruning  of  the  other  trees.  Windfirm  trees  of  either 
white  pine,  oak,  ash,  or  cherry  should  be  selected  for  seed  trees, 
and,  if  possible,  the  cutting  should  be  made  at  the  time  of  a  pine 
seed  year.  The  chestnut  will  maintain  its  representation  in 
the  stand  by  coppicing  and  through  occasional  seedlings  wliich 
get  a  start  in  some  opening,  so  that  it  will  be  unnecessary  to 
leave  seed  trees  of  this  species.  A  rotation  of  approximately 
eighty  years  should  be  used,  as  the  hardwood  species  need  a 


3l6  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

period  of  that  length  to  produce  a  high  yield  of  good  quality 
timber.  The  material  grown  should  be  saw  timber,  for  use  in 
various  woodworking  industries. 

2.  White  Cedar  Swamp.  —  This  is  a  type  which  has  not  been 
sufficiently  studied  from  the  management  standpoint.  A  system 
of  clear  cutting  in  strips  seems  best  adapted  to  the  type.  Where 
windfirm,  individuals  can  be  found  clear  cutting  with  scattered 
seed  trees  should  give  satisfactory  results.  In  the  swamp  where 
white  cedar  is  in  pure  stands  these  methods  of  cutting  should 
insure  cedar  reproduction.  Where  soft  maple  is  present  it  will 
be  apt  to  compete  with  the  cedar.  It  is  still  an  open  question 
whether  stands  of  the  slow-growing  but  more  valuable  cedar  will 
give  better  financial  returns  than  the  much  more  rapid-growing 
soft  maple,  which,  however,  yields  nothing  but  cordwood.  The 
soft  maple  may  prove  upon  further  study  an  equally  good  or 
better  tree  to  favor  than  the  white  cedar. 

3.  Pitch  Pine.  —  The  great  need  of  lands  in  this  type  is  for 
protection.  From  its  situation  on  dry  sandy  soils  it  is  exposed 
to  frequent  fires,  but  when  these  are  stopped  reproduction  is 
easily  secured.  While  the  soils  of  the  type  are  all  poor  sands 
there  are  two  degrees  of  poverty  which  need  recognition.  One 
of  these  includes  the  very  deepest  and  poorest  sands,  and  are 
best  suited  for  the  production  of  pitch  pine  or  some  pine  of 
similar  soil  and  moisture  requirements,  as  the  Scotch  pine;  the 
other  soil  is  not  so  poor  naturally,  but  has  been  burned  over  so 
frequently  that  pitch  pine  has  replaced  better  species  like  white 
pine,  which  could  grow  on  these  sites. 

The  first  class  of  soils  will  have  to  be  managed  for  pitch 
pine.  It  can  be  easily  reproduced  under  any  of  the  systems  of 
clear  cutting  with  natural  reproduction.  The  scattered  seed 
tree  method  is  especially  recommended.  There  seems  to  be  no 
reason  why  red  or  Scotch  pine  would  not  thrive  on  the  pitch 
pine  soils.  These  would  produce  a  much  better  grade  of 
lumber  and  give  a  higher  yield  per  acre.  The  extreme  south- 
eastern portion  of  the  white  pine  region  may  be  too  different 
climatically  from  the  commercial  range  of  the  red  pine  to  war- 


THE   WHITE    PINE   REGION 


31? 


rant  its  introduction,  but  elsewhere  in  the  region  red  pine  is 
recommended  for  planting,  to  replace  the  pitch  pine.  Probably 
a  clear  cutting  of  the  pitch  pine  before  planting  with  red  pine 
will  be  best,  as  the  latter  does  not  require  shade  of  an  older 
stand  in  youth. 

On  the  second  class  of  soils  where  white  pine  could  grow,  the 
management  should  work  to  replace  the  pitch  pine  by  white 


r>g^^sm 


Fig.  115.  —  Reproduction  following  clear  cutting  with  the  leaving  of  seed  trees.  The  clear 
cutting  was  done  about  10  years  ago  and  the  seed  trees  (the  stump  of  one  being  seen 
in  the  foreground)  were  recently  removed. 


pine.  If  seed  trees  of  the  latter  are  in  the  vicinity  it  can  often 
be  done  by  protection  from  fire  together  with  a  clear  cutting  of 
the  pitch  pine  in  a  white  pine  seed  year.  Indeed,  the  white 
pine,  under  fire  protection,  will  reproduce  abundantly,  directly 
under  the  pitch  pine  stand,  which  has  a  favorable  influence 
as  nurse  trees  on  the  growth  of  the  white  pine  for  a  few 
years. 

Where  white  pine  seed  trees  are  lacking  the  white  pine  should 
be  underplanted  and  a  few  years  later  the  pitch  pine  stand  cut 
clear. 


3l8  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

4.  Pure  White  Pine.  —  Several  systems  of  reproduction  can 
be  employed  with  this  type,  as  white  pine  reproduces  well  after 
nearly  all  styles  of  cutting. 

Regular  even-aged  stands  are  desired,  hence  some  method  of 
clear  cutting  or  the  shelterwood  system  should  be  employed. 

The  scattered  seed  tree  method  will  give  good  results  if  the 
proper  type  of  seed  trees  are  left.  Three  seed  trees  per  acre  are 
usually  sufficient  to  insure  a  full  reproduction.  These  trees 
can  be  taken  out  when  the  reproduction  has  started.  Some 
lumbermen  laugh  at  the  idea  of  leaving  scattered  white  pine 
seed  trees,  stating  that  from  their  experience  the  trees  are  sure  to 
blow  down.  On  investigation  the  experience  of  such  men  with 
seed  trees  usually  proves  to  have  been  the  leaving  of  tall,  slender 
unmerchantable  trees  with  a  sprig  of  foliage  at  the  top.  Natu- 
rally such  a  tree  has  a  feeble  root  system  and  a  weak  stem,  and 
is  liable  to  be  uprooted  and  blown  down  by  the  wind,  and 
moreover,  is  incapable  of  bearing  fertile  seed.  It  is  in  no  sense 
of  the  word  a  seed  tree. 

Even  when  a  sufficient  number  of  first-class  seed  trees  have 
been  left,  satisfactory  reproduction  may  not  follow  the  cutting. 
The  principal  cause  of  this  failure  is  apt  to  be  that  the  cutting 
has  been  made  in  a  year  which  was  not  a  seed  year,  and  that 
before  a  seed  year  occurs  the  seed-bed  conditions  have  become 
unfavorable  or  other  species  have  usurped  the  site.  Periods  of 
three  to  seven  years  intervene  between  good  seed  years  of  white 
pine.  In  New  England  the  years  1897,  1904,  1907,  1908,  1910, 
and  191 1  were  good  seed  years  for  all  or  certain  portions  of  the 
region.  If  the  cutting  is  made  when  the  crop  of  seed  has  just 
ripened  much  of  the  seed  is  worked  into  the  ground  and  the  fol- 
lowing spring  advantage  is  taken  of  favorable  seed-bed  condi- 
tions, before  grass,  herbs,  and  other  trees  secure  a  start. 

It  is  often  inconvenient  to  delay  the  cutting  until  a  seed  year 
arrives,  and  this  is  one  objection  to  the  method,  an  objection 
which  holds  also  against  another  good  method,  clear  cutting  in 
strips.  In  applying  this  system  the  strips  cut  over  should  not 
exceed  two  hundred  feet  in  width  or  about  three  times  the  height 


THE  WHITE  PINE   REGION  319 

of  the  surrounding  seed  woods.  This  method  could  be  used  on 
large  tracts,  but  is  not  suitable  for  a  pine  woodlot  which  must 
be  cut  over  in  one  operation.  After  reproduction  is  secured  the 
seed  woods  are  removed. 

Clear  cutting  with  artificial  reproduction  should  also  be 
given  serious  consideration  in  selecting  the  method  of  repro- 
duction.    It  has  the  advantage  of  making  the  operator  entirely 


Fig.  116.  —  Clear  cutting  with  artificial  reproduction.  This  stand  of  the  white  pine  type 
is  being  cut  clear.  The  hardwoods  in  the  foreground  are  temporarily  left  but  will  soon 
be  cut  for  cordwood.  Note  the  small  amount  of  brush.  This  will,  however,  hinder 
planting.     It  should  be  piled  and  burned,  and  the  stand  reproduced  artificially. 

independent  of  seed  years,  and  enables  him  to  cut  every  mer- 
chantable tree  at  one  cutting.  It  is  a  more  expensive  method, 
but  not  so  much  more  expensive  as  is  often  thought.  Natural 
reproduction  under  any  of  the  other  systems  requires  some 
sacrifice  in  leaving  trees  or  in  slightly  raising  the  cost  of  harvest- 
ing the  crop.  Owing  to  its  greater  certainty  and  more  regular 
reproduction  a  somewhat  higher  cost  for  planting  is  justifiable. 
On  small  woodlots  where  the  total  amount  of  timber  is  too 
small  to  justify  two  logging  jobs  the  use  of  artificial  reproduc- 
tion is  always  advisable. 


320 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


The  shelterwood  system  has  some  advantages  for  handling 
white  pine  over  the  clear-cutting  methods  of  natural  reproduc- 
tion. For  one  thing  a  shelter  is  afforded  the  reproduction  dur- 
ing the  first  few  years,  and  there  is  less  danger  of  the  soil  running 
wild  to  grasses,  herbs,  etc.,  and  becoming  unfavorable  for  the 
germination  of  pine  seed.     Even  when  this  system  is  used  it  is 


By  permission  of  the  U.  S.  Fores!  Service. 

Fig.  117. — A  50  year  old  stand  of  white  pine  before  the  cutting  shown  in 
the  next  picture. 


advisable  to  make  the  cuttings  in  a  pine  seed  year,  as  otherwise 
undesirable  species  such  as  soft  maple  may  reproduce. 

In  applying  the  shelterwood  system  the  removal  of  the  stand 
in  two  cuttings  is  recommended.  The  first  takes  out  forty  to 
sixty  per  cent  of  the  volume,  and  the  second,  a  final  cutting,  re- 
moves the  remainder  when  reproduction  is  well  established. 
Should  the  reproduction  be  patchy  it  may  be  best  to  make  two, 
instead  of  one,  final  cuttings. 


THE   WHITE   PINE    REGION 


321 


If  an  uneven-aged  white  pine  forest  is  wanted  for  some  special 
purpose,  such  for  example  as  the  aesthetic  effect,  it  can  be 
secured  by  use  of  the  selection  system.  White  pine  responds 
well  to  this  method  of  treatment.  The  timber  secured  is  apt  to 
be  larger  in  diameter  for  the  same  age,  but  more  knotty  than 
that  grown  in  even-aged  stands. 

Thinnings  at  regular  intervals  should  be  made  where  the 
stand  is  handled  as  an  even-aged  one.  The  thinnings  can  often 
be  started  as  early  as  the  twentieth  year  and  be  repeated  at 
intervals  of  ten  years  or  less.  These  thinnings,  while  having  as 
their  primary  object  the  better  development  of  the  trees  left 
standing,  will  yield  substantial  returns.  The  following  table, 
showing  yields  from  thinnings,  has  been  compiled  from  figures 
secured  in  New  Hampshire  and  Massachusetts,  and  published 
in  the  "  Report  of  the  New  Hampshire  Forestry  Commission  for 
1 905- 1 906,"  and  in  "Forest  Mensuration  of  the  White  Pine  in 
Massachusetts." 

YIELD   PER  ACRE  FROM  THINNINGS   IN   THE   PURE  WHITE 
PINE  TYPE   IN   STANDS   NEVER  THINNED  BEFORE. 


25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 
55 


Massachusetts. 


New  Hamp- 
shire. 


Feet,  board  measure. 


1,400 
3.700 
4-950 
6,000 
6,800 
7,400 
7,900 


750 
3.300 
5,600 
7.500 
8,900 
9,900 


Trees  less  than 
5  inches  in 
diameter. 


New  Hamp- 
shire. 


750 
600 
450 
300 
150 


It  is  believed  that  for  stands  under  thirty-five  years  the 
Massachusetts  figures  are  best,  and  for  stands  over  thirty-five 
years  the  New  Hampshire  figures  are  more  desirable.  The 
severity  of  the  thinning  has  of  course  much  to  do  with  its  yield. 

The  figures  of  yield  given  above  are  true  only  for  the  first 
thinning  in  stands  not  previously  thinned.     They  do  not  show 


322  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

what  could  be  secured  in  a  stand  repeatedly  thinned,  for  ex- 
ample, thinned  in  the  twenty-fifth  year  and  then  at  intervals  of 
ten  years,  but  the  total  amount  obtained  from  repeated  thin- 
nings, say  at  the  ages  of  twenty-five,  thirty-five,  forty-five,  and 
fifty-five  years,  would  exceed  that  secured  by  a  single  thinning 
at  fifty-five  years.     If  the  age  at  which  the  last  thinning  is  to 


By  permission  oj  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

Fig.  ii8.  —  A  cutting  which  removed  about  50  per  cent  of  the  stand,  and  should  result 
in  securing  reproduction.     See  Fig.  117. 


be  made  is  known,  the  yield  given  for  a  thinning  at  that  age 
may  be  accepted  as  a  very  conservative  estimate  of  what  can  be 
secured  from  a  stand  by  the  thinnings  during  the  rotation. 

The  yield  from  thinnings,  as  explained  in  Chapter  V,  is  se- 
cured without  decreasing  the  final  yield  of  the  stand.  The 
thinnings  in  the  latter  half  of  the  rotation  often  result  in  the 
bringing  in  of  pine  reproduction  and  sometimes  may  result  in 
fully  stocking  the  ground.      In  such  a  case  the  entire   stand 


THE   WHITE   PINE   REGION 


323 


can  be  cut  clear  at  the  end  of  the  rotation  and  the  reproduction 
allowed  to  develop.  The  last  thinning  has  then  really  been  a 
first  cutting  under  the  shelterwood  method. 

The  most  profitable  rotation  for  the  pure  white  pine  type  is 
about  fifty  or  fifty-five  years.  This  is  shown  by  the  yield 
tables  given  in  the  New  Hampshire  Forestry  Report  for  1905- 
1906,  and  in  "Forest  Mensuration  of  the  White  Pine,"  issued 
by  the   State  Forester  of  Massachusetts.     These   two   tables 


By  permission  of  F.  F.  Moon. 

Fig.  iig.  —  A  thinning  in  the  white  pine  type  showing  the  character  of  logs  secured  and 

the  brush  piled.    This  operation  was  carried  on  under  the  direction  of  the  State 

Forester  of  Massachusetts. 

differ  in  the  exact  financial  returns  to  be  secured,  but  agree  in 
showing  that  the  best  returns  are  obtained  by  rotations  of 
fifty  to  fifty-five  years.^  Using  their  figures  it  seems  safe  to 
assume  a  return  of  from  five  to  six  per  cent  compound  interest 
on  the  investment  for  stands  of  the  pure  white  pine  type. 

5.  Pine  and  Inferior  Hardwoods.  —  The  object  here  is  to  get 
rid  of  the  hardwoods,  and  to  transform  the  type  into  a  pure 

1  It  may  often  be  desirable  to  allow  white  pine  stands  to  grow  until  seventy 
or  seventy-five  years  of  age,  in  order  to  obtain  the  large  yields  of  high-grade  tim- 
ber, which  can  be  produced  on  such  a  rotation,  although  a  smaller  return  on  the 
investment  is  secured  than  when  using  a  lower  rotation. 


324  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

pine  stand.  (It  will  be  remembered  that  the  hardwoods  in  the 
type  are  gray  birch,  soft  maple,  and  poplar,  and  are  of  little 
value  except  for  cordwood.)  The  treatment  to  accomplish  this 
transformation  consists  mainly  in  cutting  out  all  hardwoods 
and  leaving  the  pine.  It  can  best  be  started  as  an  improve- 
ment cutting  (strictly  a  cleaning)  in  young  stands,  freeing 
the  pine  from  crowding  and  overtopping  hardwoods.  In  very 
young  stands,  too  small  to  furnish  cordwood,  the  hardwoods 
can  be  lopped  back  sufficiently  so  that  their  tops  are  lower 
than  those  of  the  pine.  This  provides  for  the  proper  de- 
velopment of  the  white  pine  in  the  stand,  though  it  may  not 
result  in  any  further  seeding.  Where  areas  of  more  than  a 
quarter  of  an  acre  are  stocked  with  the  hardwoods  and  there  is 
no  pine  in  the  mixture,  it  is  necessary  either  to  cut  clear  and 
plant  or  else  to  secure  pine  reproduction  naturally  from  adjacent 
seed  trees.  Planting  is  the  quickest  and  surest,  but  natural  re- 
production can  be  secured  by  cutting  clear  the  hardwoods 
when  seed  trees  nearby  have  a  full  crop  of  seed.  Whether  arti- 
ficial or  natural  reproduction  is  used  it  will  be  necessary  to 
protect  the  pine  seedlings  from  the  growth  of  hardwood  sprouts, 
which  is  almost  certain  to  follow  the  cutting.  This  can  be  ac- 
complished by  means  of  cleanings. 

When  the  type  changes  into  the  pure  white  pine  type  its 
treatment  becomes  the  same  as  that  described  for  the  latter. 

6.  Mixed  Hardwoods.  —  This  is  another  type  best  handled  as 
an  even-aged  forest,  as  that  is  its  present  form  and  the  repro- 
duction is  quite  largely  by  sprouts,  making  it  desirable  to 
maintain  a  regular  even-aged  character. 

The  shelterwood  system  or  the  modified  form  of  this  system, 
known  as  the  polewood  coppice  system  is  advised.  As  the 
mixed  hardwoods  type  of  this  region  occurs  in  greater  abun- 
dance and  is  the  chief  commercial  type  in  the  adjacent  forest 
region  to  the  south  (sprout  hardwoods  region),  a  full  discussion 
of  its  treatment  has  been  given  under  this  latter  region,  to  which 
the  reader  is  referred.  The  same  general  method  of  treatment 
can  be  used  in  both  regions. 


THE   WHITE    PINE   REGION  325 

The  hardwoods  to  favor  are  white  ash,  red  oak,  black  cherry, 
and  chestnut,  —  the  latter  only  in  case  the  chestnut  bark  dis- 
ease loses  its  virulence  within  a  few  years.  There  is  sometimes 
a  small  mixture  of  white  pine  in  the  type,  and  where  this  is  the 
case  the  pine  should  be  favored  and  the  pine  seed  trees  left  when 
the  fmal  cutting  is  made. 

7.  Soft  Maple  Swamp.  — Soit  maple  cordwood  will  always  be 
the  main  product  of  this  type.  This  species  will  yield  greater 
amounts  of  wood  on  the  site  than  any  other,  and  should  be 
favored.  On  some  of  the  better  sites  a  little  soft  maple  lumber 
can  be  secured.  On  such  situations  some  of  the  better  asso- 
ciates of  the  soft  maple,  such  as  yellow  birch,  should  be  en- 
couraged on  account  of  the  greater  value  of  their  timber.  There 
should  be  no  attempt,  however,  to  eradicate  soft  maple  from 
the  stand.  The  simple  coppice  system  is  well  adapted  for  re- 
producing soft  maple  swamps,  since  the  maple  coppices  freely, 
and  on  swampy  land  produces  vigorous  sprouts.  Where  cord- 
wood  only  is  desired  a  rotation  of  thirty  to  forty  years  should 
prove  most  profitable.  Where  some  lumber  also  is  wanted  a 
forty  to  fifty  years'  rotation  will  be  better.  If  the  longer  rota- 
tion for  lumber  is  used  two  thinnings  at  least  should  be  made 
during  the  rotation.  The  coppice  with  standards  could  also  be 
used  to  advantage  where  soft  maple  lumber  was  wanted,  cutting 
the  coppice  on  a  thirty-year  rotation,  and  the  standards  when 
sixty  or  ninety  years  of  age.  On  a  short  rotation  of  thirty  years 
for  cordwood  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  make  any  thinnings. 

8.  Waste  Land.  —  The  treatment  needed  by  this  type  of  land 
is  protection  from  fires,  and  planting.  Because  of  the  sandy 
nature  of  the  site  planting  should  be  with  pine;  in  many  cases 
white  pine,  but  on  the  poorest  sites  red  pine  or  in  the  most 
unfavorable  situations  pitch  pine  or  Scotch  pine  should  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  white  pine. 

The  loose  sandy  character  of  the  soil  makes  the  expense  of 
setting  the  plants  comparatively  low.  Strong,  sturdy  stock, 
transplanted,  and  at  least  three  years  old,  should  be  used. 
Usually  the  present  growth  of  scrub  oak,  shrubs,  etc.,  is  not 


326  FORESTRY  IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

dense  enough  nor  of  such  rapid  growth  as  to  interfere  with  the 
development  of  the  plantation,  which  is  often  benefited  by  a 
light  shade  for  a  few  years. 

Included  in  the  waste  land  type  are  certain  lands  in  Massa- 
chusetts^ at  the  end  of  Cape  Cod,  covered  with  drifting  sands. 
The  surface  soil  here  is  continually  shifting,  being  blown  by  the 
winds  into  huge  sand  dunes.  These  moving  dunes  are  a  menace 
to  adjoining  lands  as  well  as  being  utterly  unproductive.  The 
lands  were  formerly  wooded,  but  as  a  result  of  cutting,  grazing, 
and  forest  fires  have  been  rendered  barren.  In  order  to  stop  the 
movement  of  these  shifting  sands  it  is  necessary  to  reestablish 
the  forest  cover. 

This  is  the  most  difhcult  planting  proposition  in  the  region, 
and  one  of  the  most  difficult  in  the  whole  country.  It  is  an  ex- 
ample of  protective  planting,  calling  for  a  large  outlay,  too 
great  to  make  the  work  pay  financially.  It  is,  therefore,  a 
project  which  the  state  or  federal  government,  rather  than 
an  individual,  must  handle. 

Trees  cannot  be  planted  at  once  on  such  land.  It  is  neces- 
sary first  to  hold  the  sands  temporarily  with  some  other  form 
of  vegetation.  Usually  beach  grass  is  planted  first,  then  some 
sort  of  a  shrub  such  as  bayberry  is  introduced.  After  these 
woody  plants  have  become  well  established  trees  are  set  out. 
In  past  experience  pitch  pine,  Austrian  pine,  Scotch  pine,  black 
locust,  and  black  alder  (alnus  glutinosa)  have  all  been  successful. 

Since  sand  dunes  form  but  a  small  fraction  of  the  land  in  the 
waste  land  type,  a  more  detailed  discussion  of  planting  such 
land  is  unnecessary  here.  The  reader  is  referred  to  an  excel- 
lent bulletin  on  the  subject,  which  gives  the  details  of  what  has 
been  done  in  planting  the  dunes  on  Cape  Cod." 

^  Approximately  2000  acres. 

2  Bulletin  No.  65  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  entitled 
"Reclamation  of  Cape  Cod  Sand  Dunes." 


THE   WHITE   PINE   REGION 


327 


Logging  Methods,  Market  Conditions,  Industries,  Own- 
ership OF  Woodlands. 

Logging  MetJwds.  —  The  topography  of  the  white  pine  region 
makes  logging  here  a  relatively  easy  matter.  Cutting  and 
hauHng  of  logs  is  often  carried  on  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 
This  practice  is  most  common  in  the  central  and  southern  por- 
tions of  the  region,  where  snow  cannot  be  relied  on  for  winter 


Fig.  120.  —  The  white  pine  type.     A  light  thinning  in  a  stand  40  to  50  years  of  age. 

logging.  In  the  southern  portion  for  a  few  months  in  the  sum- 
mer the  heat  makes  logging  expensive.  In  the  northern  por- 
tions, with  more  snow,  there  is  more  of  a  tendency  to  concentrate 
logging  operations  in  the  winter. 

Clear  cutting  has  been  the  usual  method  of  logging  in  the 
past.  It  will  not  need  radical  change  when  forestry  methods 
are  introduced.  The  use  of  thinnings,  leaving  of  seed  trees, 
and  removal  of  a  mature  stand  in  two  operations  instead  of 
one  are  the  principal  changes  recommended.  Under  nearly  all 
the  systems  of  reproduction  advised  in  the  preceding  chapter 
a  final  clear  cutting  of  the  stand  is  included. 


328  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

The  mills  are  of  small  capacity,  either  portable  or  stationary 
in  character,  the  former  being  the  more  usual.  With  such  a 
mill  the  lumberman  can  move  onto  the  lot  to  be  cut,  the  topog- 
raphy making  this  possible  in  nearly  every  instance.  The 
owners  of  the  mills  often  farm  part  of  the  year  and  saw  timber 
during  the  remainder.  Lack  of  virgin  timber  and  the  decreas- 
ing size  and  number  of  the  tracts  of  timber  to  be  cut  is  causing 
the  same  trend  from  portable  toward  stationary  mills  as  was 
described  in  the  northern  hardwoods  region.  It  is  so  much 
easier  to  take  a  mill  onto  a  woodlot  in  the  white  pine  region  as 
contrasted  to  the  northern  hardwoods  region  that  portable  mills 
will  perhaps  always  hold  first  place.  There  are  also  fewer 
available  water-power  sites  for  stationary  mills  than  in  the 
latter  region. 

Market  Conditions.  —  Conditions  for  the  sale  of  forest  products 
are  far  better  than  in  the  two  preceding  forest  regions  and  slightly 
better  than  in  the  sprout  hardwoods  region.  Railroads  ramify 
all  parts  of  the  region.  Most  of  the  area  lies  less  than  five  miles 
from  railroad  lines,  but  a  few  points  can  be  found,  twelve  to 
fifteen  miles  distant  in  a  straight  line  from  a  railroad.  The 
Maine  and  Central  New  Hampshire  portions  have  the  poorest 
railroad  facifities. 

The  region  is  characterized  by  a  dense  population,  the  Massa- 
chusetts section  being  one  of  the  most  thickly  settled  sections 
in  the  United  States,  with  the  innumerable  large  towns  situated 
here. 

As  would  be  expected  with  such  a  dense  population  this  is 
not  a  timber  exporting  region.  It  does  not  produce  enough 
forest  products  to  supply  its  own  local  demands, ^  and  large 
quantities  of  timber  are  imported. 

The  dense  population  creates  a  strong  demand  for  wood,  and 
makes  possible  a  closer  utilization  than  is  found  in  the  other 
New  England  forest  regions.  The  possibiHty  of  utilizing  small 
material  is  often  the  cause  of  cutting  stands  on  short  rotations, 

1  This  does  not  mean  that  some  products,  Uke  white  pine  for  boxes,  are  not 
shipped  outside. 


THE   WHITE   PINE   REGION  329 

sometimes  as  low  as  twenty  years  for  timber,  and  even  lower 
for  some  special  product  like  willow  wood  for  powder  (cut  on  a 
rotation  of  seven  to  nine  years). 

Industries.  —  The  white  pine  region  is  a  great  manufacturing 
and  commercial  region.  These  pursuits  rank  first,  with  agri- 
cultural interests  second  in  importance.  Strictly  forest  indus- 
tries hold  a  subordinate  position.  Among  the  latter  the  lumber 
industry  leads,  the  greater  part  of  the  timber  cut  being  sawn 
into  lumber  of  some  sort  rather  than  used  for  ties,  pulpwood, 
telegraph,  and  telephone  poles,  etc. 

The  total  lumber  cut  of  the  region  exceeds  one  billion  feet, 
being  estimated  at  1,085,402,000  feet,^  board  measure.  Of  this 
amount  935,000,000  feet,-  board  measure,  was  white  pine  and 
the  balance,  150,402,000  feet,  board  measure,  was  mainly  chest- 
nut and  hemlock  with  a  variety  of  other  woods.  As  the  total 
amount  of  white  pine  cut  in  the  United  States  in  1909  was 
3,900,034,000  feet,  board  measure,  this  region  is  evidently  an 
important  producer,  ranking  second  to  the  Lake  States,  which 
cut  considerably  over  2,000,000,000  feet,  board  measure. 

The  region  is  well  equipped  with  numerous  wood-working 
plants,  in  this  respect  leading  the  other  New  England  forest 
regions.  A  large  per  cent  (probably  less  than  fifty  per  cent)  of 
the  lumber  cut  is  worked  up  by  these  special  wood-working 
plants  into  a  variety  of  products.  The  most  important  of  such 
products,  both  in  amount  of  native  grown  lumber  used  and  in 
value  of  the  output,  is  the  wooden-box  industry.  In  fact  the 
white  pine  region  is  characterized  by  the  extent  to  which  the 
box  industry  has  developed  within  its  borders,  deriving  its  main 
source  of  supply  from  the  white  pine.  The  boundaries  of  the 
region  correspond  closely  with  the  territory  in  New  England 
covered  by  the  box  industry.     The  large  number  of  manufac- 

1  The  figures  given  here  are  based  on  the  cut  for  the  year  1909,  as  computed  by 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  the  Census. 

2  This  is  approximately  the  amount  of  white  pine  cut  in  the  New  England  States. 
A  small  per  cent  of  it  was  undoubtedly  cut  in  the  other  New  England  forest  regions. 
Just  how  much  it  is  impossible  to  determine  and  it  has  all  been  credited  to  the 
white  pine  region. 


330 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW   ENGLAND 


turing  plants  in  the  region  create  a  heavy  local  demand  for  all 
kinds  of  wooden  boxes;  and  it  is  fortunate  that  a  wood  so  suit- 
able for  box  construction  as  white  pine  is  available. 

There  are  several  hundred  box  factories  in  the  region,  con- 
suming annually  from  a  few  thousand  to  twenty  and  thirty 
milHon  feet  apiece.     However,  the  small  boxmen  are  gradually 


By  permission  oj  the  MassiukmcHs  State  Forester- 
Fig.  121.  —  A  heavy  thinning  in  a  rather  open  grown  stand  of  white  pine.     Note  the  brush 
piled  in  the  openings  ready  for  burning. 


giving  way  to  the  stronger  concerns,  owing  to  the  difhculty  of 
getting  timber.  Frequently  a  box  shop,  is  run  in  connection 
with  some  other  wood- working  plant  to  utilize  the  coarser  grades. 
In  some  cases,  as  for  example  some  of  the  shoe  makers  of  eastern 
Massachusetts,  manufacturing  concerns  maintain  their  own  box 
shop  for  construction  of  the  boxes  needed  in  shipping  their  out- 
put. In  connection  with  the  production  of  white  pine  lumber 
for  box  boards  close  utilization  is  possible.  Logs  less  than  three 
inches  at  the  top  are  sometimes  run  through  the  mill.  Usually 
the  lumber  is  sawn  by  the  portable  mills  into  planks  or  one-inch 


THE   WHITE   PINE   REGION 


331 


boards,  and  later  resawn  in  the  box  shops.  The  custom  prevails 
in  some  localities  in  Massachusetts  of  cutting  logs  into  very 
short  lengths  (often  under  four  feet),  and  sawing  the  boards 
at  the  portable  mills  into  thicknesses  of  a  fraction  of  an  inch, 
five-eighths  inch  being  a  common  thickness.  The  contents,  in 
feet,  board  measure,  of  such  boards  is  figured  as  though  they 
were  of  full  inch  thickness,  which  is  somewhat  confusing  to  the 
uninitiated.     Each  box  shop  employs  a  buyer,  who  purchases 


Fig. 


Plant  of  the  Diamond  Match  Co.,  at  Athol,  Mass.,  where  white  1 
resawed  into  match  blocks  and  shipped  to  the  match  factories. 


logs  or  sawn  box  boards.  Very  few  shops  own  the  necessary 
amount  of  standing  timber  to  supply  their  plant. 

In  some  sections,  especially  around  Athol,  Massachusetts,  a 
good  deal  of  the  white  pine  cut  goes  into  the  manufacture  of 
matches.  Material  for  matches  has  to  be  of  a  little  larger  size 
than  for  boxes  and  staves.  Logs  under  six  inches  at  the  top 
are  ordinarily  disposed  of  to  box  shops  or  stave  factories. 

Beside  the  timber  cut  for  lumber  there  are  large  quantities  of 
material  taken  out  in  the  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Con- 
necticut, and  Rhode  Island  sections  for  railroad  ties,  telegraph, 
telephone,  and  trolley  poles,  and  cordwood.     Chestnut  is  the 


332  FORESTRY   IN  NEW   ENGLAND 

principal  species  thus  used,  while  oak  is  used  for  ties,  and  all 
species  are  used  for  cordwood. 

In  possibilities  for  the  sale  of  cordwood  the  white  pine  region 
excels  the  other  New  England  forest  regions.  This  is  due 
mainly  to  the  dense  population,  which  affects  the  sale  of  cord- 
wood in  two  ways;  first,  by  affording  a  market,  and  second, 
by  making  possible  close  utilization  for  other  more  valuable 
products,  and  hence  effecting  a  reduction  in  the  amount  of 
material  which  has  to  be  put  into  cordwood. 

This  last  point  has  special  weight  with  conifers  which  lend 
themselves  more  readily  to  close  utilization  in  the  tops  for  valu- 
able products  than  do  hardwoods. 

Ownership  of  Woodlands.  —  The  forest  is  held  mainly  in 
woodlots  and  small-sized  tracts.  The  size  of  the  average  farm 
is  about  eighty  to  one  hundred  acres  and  part  of  it  is  usually 
wooded. 

In  Massachusetts,  in  the  year  iqo6,  the  records  showed 
only  forty-five  holdings  of  over  one  thousand  acres  each,  and 
a  number  of  them  were  in  the  western  part  of  the  state,  outside 
the  white  pine  region.  In  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  and  Vermont 
a  relatively  larger  number  of  big  holdings  exist,  but  a  holding 
of  10,000  acres  is  an  exceptionally  large  tract  for  the  region, 
and  very  few  occur. 

The  large  holdings  are  either  in  the  possession  of  box  concerns 
or  lumbermen,  or  form  private  preserves  and  parks.  All  these 
classes  of  owners  are  apt  to  increase  in  the  future.  Except  for 
small  scattered  tracts  in  Massachusetts,  not  exceeding  a  few 
thousand  acres,  and  a  couple  of  small  state  forests  in  Con- 
necticut, the  states  do  not  appear  as  owners  of  forests  lands. 

Forest  Protection. 

Forest  Fires.  —  It  might  at  first  thought  seem  that  the  white 
pine  region  with  its  wooded  area  broken  up  into  woodlots,  and 
with  its  dense  population,  should  be  comparatively  free  from 
fires.  Unfortunately  increased  density  of  population  is  not 
necessarily  accompanied  by  decrease  in  the  number  of  forest 


THE   WHITE   PINE   REGION 


333 


fires.  In  fact,  an  increase  in  population,  due  to  manufacturing 
development,  often  brings  in  a  class  of  people,  who,  by  their 
carelessness,  increase  the  fire  danger.  The  railroads  are  numer- 
ous and  carry  a  heavy  traffic,  and  frequently  traverse  wooded 
areas  instead  of  passing  mainly  through  cleared  valleys,  as  in 
the  northern  hardwoods  region.  There  are  large  areas,  in  the 
aggregate,  of  coniferous  stands  on  dry  sandy  soils,  a  combination 
causing  great  fire  hazard.     A  large  majority  of  the  fires,  and 


Fig. 


[23.  —  A  stand  of  white  pine  has  just  been  cut  clear  here,  for  sawlogs  and  cordwood. 
The  brush  should  be  piled  and  burned  and  the  land  planted. 


the  most  dangerous,  occur  on  such  situations.  For  these  rea- 
sons the  danger  and  frequency  of  forest  fires  is  even  greater 
than  in  the  two  forest  regions  already  discussed. 

Both  surface  and  crown  fires  occur,  though  the  former  is  the 
prevalent  kind.  On  sandy  soils,  where  the  growth  is  pure  or 
nearly  pure  of  conifers,  the  surface  fires  may  develop  into  de- 
structive crown  fires.  The  extent  to  which  gray  birch  has 
spread  over  lands  formerly  in  white  pine  or  valuable  hard- 
woods is  the  result  largely  of  fires  rather  than  cutting.  This  is 
one  of  the  worst  effects  of  forest  fires  in  this  region.     On  the 


334  FORESTRY  IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

sandiest  soils  scrub  oak  is  encouraged  in  the  same  way.  The 
fires  are,  of  course,  more  apt  to  start  on  cut-over  lands,  but  run 
readily  through  stands  of  heavy  timber.  The  ground  cover  of 
wet  moss  characteristic  of  the  forest  in  the  spruce  region,  and 
which,  under  ordinary  circumstances  prevents  fire  in  an  uncut 
stand,  is  here  lacking.  On  sandy  and  gravelly  soils  in  the 
white  pine  region  the  pine  duff  readily  dries  out  and  becomes 
inflammable.  Stands  of  young  pine  fall  an  easy  victim  even  to 
light  fires,  as  on  entering  such  a  stand  the  fire  feeds  on  the 
tinder-like  dead  branches  covering  the  lower  parts  of  the  trunk. 

The  forest  fire  season  is  a  longer  one  in  the  white  pine  region 
than  in  the  two  more  northerly  ones,  due  to  the  shorter  winters. 
This  is  mainly  noticeable  in  the  southern  half  of  the  region,  and 
not  in  the  Maine,  Vermont,  and  New  Hampshire  portions. 
Statistics  published  by  the  State  Forester  of  Massachusetts  for 
1909  show  that  fires  occurred  in  that  state  during  every  month 
in  the  year  except  December.  In  other  years  fires  have  occurred 
during  that  month,  so  that  the  season  can  be  said  to  last  the 
entire  year,  but  for  practical  purposes  the  winter  months  are 
free  from  fires.  Beginning  the  first  of  March  and  from  then 
until  well  into  November,  forest  fires  may  be  expected.  As 
previously  stated  in  discussing  fire  conditions  in  the  northern 
hardwoods  region,  the  occurrence  of  wet  or  dry  periods  through- 
out the  year  really  fixes  the  dangerous  fire  season.  Within 
the  last  few  years  there  has  been  variation  enough  in  climatic 
conditions  to  allow  serious  fires  in  all  months  of  the  year,  from 
March  to  November,  inclusive.  Prolonged  droughts  under 
present  conditions  are  certain  to  result  in  a  large  number  of 
forest  fires. 

Railroad  locomotives  are  responsible  for  starting  more  forest 
fires  than  any  other  known  cause.  The  close  network  of  rail- 
road fines  and  the  frequent  passage  of  locomotives  directly 
through  wooded  areas  increase  their  importance  as  a  cause  of 
fires.  In  the  sections  where  extensive  wooded  areas  occur  on 
sandy  soils,  as,  for  example,  in  southeastern  Massachusetts, 
locomotives  are  especially  dangerous  to  the  forest.     Many  fires 


THE  WHITE   PINE   REGION  335 

are  set  through  carelessness  in  the  use  of  matches  or  tobacco. 
Fishermen  and  hunters  in  the  woods  and  especially  people 
simply  out  for  pleasure  are  responsible  for  this  class  of  fires. 
On  Sundays  and  holidays  during  the  warmer  months  and  in 
the  vicinity  of  manufacturing  towns  many  fires  are  apt  to  start 
from  such  causes.  It  is  much  more  difficult  to  trace  the  cause 
of  fires  due  to  carelessness  than  those  due  to  railroads  since  they 
may  start  in  the  most  distant  and  out  of  the  way  places, 
while  the  latter  start  near  the  track,  and  therefore  in  a  locality 
which  can  be  easily  reached  and  often  is  well  watched. 

Doubtless  a  large  number  of  the  fires  of  which  the  cause  is 
reported  as  "unknown"  are  due  to  carelessness.  It  is  believed 
that  if  accurate  information  about  all  fires  could  be  secured 
carelessness  would  have  to  be  ranked  as  at  least  equal  to  railroad 
locomotives  as  a  cause  of  forest  fires  in  the  white  pine  region. 

Burning  brush  in  clearing  land  gives  rise  to  a  good  many  fires 
and  should  be  ranked  as  third  in  importance  among  the  causes 
of  forest  fires. ^ 

Methods  of  Fire  Protection.  —  The  situation  as  regards  fire 
protection  is  the  same  in  many  respects  as  in  the  northern 
hardwoods  region.  Small  areas  of  woodland  lying  in  isolated 
bodies  interspersed  with  cleared  land  are  held  by  countless  in- 
dividuals. Here  again  state  control  of  the  organization  for  fire 
protection,  with  active  wardens  in  each  town,  will  be  the  ideal 
system. 

The  comparatively  level  nature  of  the  country,  with  only 
small  differences  in  relative  altitude,  make  mountain  lookout 
stations  less  effective  than  in  a  hilher  country.  There  are  a  few 
peaks  considerably  above  the  general  level  which  offer  good 
sites  for  such  stations.  Mount  Monadnock,  in  southern  New 
Hampshire,  and  Wachusett  Mountain,  in  northern  Massachu- 
setts, are  two  examples,  but  it  is  inadvisable  to  endeavor  to 
extend  a  system  of  stations  over  the  whole  region.  Good  tele- 
phone faciUties  and  the  numerous  local  wardens  will  take  the 
place  of  mountain  lookout  stations. 

1  See  the  appendix  under  "  Forest  Fire  Statistics  "  for  further  information. 


336  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

Fires  caused  through  the  carelessness  of  people  in  the  woods 
are  so  frequent  that  special  stress  should  be  laid  on  educational 
measures.  In  the  northern  hardwoods  region,  with  a  popula- 
tion engaged  largely  in  agricultural  occupations  and  a  high 
percentage  of  the  inhabitants  interested  in  woodlands,  the  ne- 
cessity for  arousing  public  sentiment  against  forest  fires  does 
not  so  strongly  exist  as  in  a  densely  populated  section  like  the 
one  under  discussion,  with  many  manufacturing  towns  close  to 
wooded  areas.  Here  a  great  number  of  people,  entirely  igno- 
rant of  and  indifferent  to  the  damage  done  by  forest  fires,  and 
not  owning  woodlands,  are  found  taking  their  pleasure  in  the 
woods,  and  are  responsible  for  numerous  fires.  They  must  be 
educated  to  see  the  harmful  results  of  these  fires.  The  local 
fire  wardens  should  thoroughly  post  their  districts  with  warning 
and  instructive  notices  concerning  forest  fires,  printed  in  several 
languages,  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  local  population.  To  supple- 
ment these  notices  the  newspapers  should  be  furnished  with 
plenty  of  copy  on  the  subject.  A  campaign  for  better  enforce- 
ment of  the  laws  punishing  persons  setting  fires,  especially  if  a 
few  convictions  can  be  secured,  will  do  much  toward  lessening 
the  number  of  fires  set  intentionally. 

The  great  danger  of  fires  starting  from  railroad  locomotives, 
which  is  amply  proven  by  statistics,  should  lead  to  special 
efforts  to  reduce  the  fires  from  this  cause  with  the  purpose  of 
finally  eliminating  locomotives  as  a  source  of  forest  fires.  This 
may  eventually  come  by  the  use  of  a  safer  fuel  than  wood  or 
coal.  On  a  few  of  the  main  lines  electricity  will  probably  be 
voluntarily  adopted  by  the  railroads  within  ten  or  fifteen  years, 
but  the  general  adoption  of  a  new  fuel,  while  undoubtedly  most 
advantageous  from  a  fire  standpoint,  will  come  only  through 
state  regulation.  Since  the  main  lines  of  railroads  in  the 
white  pine  region  traverse  alternately  open  and  wooded  land 
it  is  doubtful  if  a  compulsory  change  of  fuel  could  be  secured, 
but  with  branch  lines  extending  chiefly  through  woodland  the 
use  of  a  safe  fuel  might  reasonably  be  demanded. 

Until  such  action  can  be  secured  emphasis  must  be  placed  on 


THE  WHITE   PINE   REGION  337 

having  railroad  rights  of  way  patrolled  in  wooded  sections. 
This  patrol  should  be  in  effect  from  early  in  the  spring  until  late 
in  the  fall,  only  being  laid  off  during  rainy  periods.  The  cost 
of  the  patrol  can  justly  be  laid  upon  the  railroad.  Indeed, 
when  the  amounts  of  money  spent  annually  by  them,  in  the 
white  pine  region,  for  settling  damage  suits  arising  from  forest 
fires  set  by  their  engines,  are  contrasted  with  the  cost  of  patrol, 
the  latter  will  be  found  cheaper.  Patrol  will  also  result  in  mak- 
ing productive  the  wooded  section  tributary  to  the  railroad 
lines,  and  build  up  the  lumber  business  instead  of  turning  the 
country  into  a  desolate  waste. 

Besides  patrol  the  use  of  fire  lines  along  railroads  in  ex- 
ceptionally dangerous  country  is  advised.  A  plan  similar  to 
the  New  Jersey  law  regarding  railroad  fire  lines  should  give 
the  best  results.  Under  this  law  the  railroads  are  obliged  to 
clear  a  line  on  each  side  of  the  track  one  hundred  and  ten  feet 
in  width.  This  must  be  cleared  and  kept  clear  of  all  inflam- 
mable material  and  small  trees.  The  trees  left  on  the  line  are 
trimmed  of  branches  for  six  feet  above  ground.  The  last  ten 
feet  on  the  outside  edge  of  the  fire  line  should  be  entirely  clear. 
The  law  has  been  in  operation  since  1909,  and  has  given  satis- 
factory results.  The  cost  of  the  first  clearing  of  the  line  varies 
with  the  nature  of  the  forest  growth,  but  ranges  from  about 
$125  to  $500  per  mile.  Maximum  costs  come  on  rocky,  hilly 
land,  covered  with  hardwood  growth,  while  minimum  costs 
obtain  on  pine  plains. 

It  would  be  well  if  such  a  law  could  be  secured  by  the  various 
states  for  use  in  the  white  pine  region,  the  fire  lines  to  be  con- 
structed along  such  stretches  of  railroad  right  of  way  as  the 
state  forestry  officials  might  designate.  It  should  first  be  ap- 
plied to  all  lines  passing  through  coniferous  stands,  and  in  hard- 
wood growth  at  all  places  where  the  railroad  has  a  heavy  grade. 

So  far  the  use  of  fire  lines  has  been  advised  only  in  con- 
nection with  railroads,  but  they  are  also  needed  in  the  more 
extensive  and  unbroken  forest  tracts  found  on  poor,  sandy  soils. 
For  details  in  the  use  of  such  Hnes  see  Chapter  VIII. 


338 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


Inasmuch  as  very  heavy  or  clear  cuttings  are  the  present 
custom  and  advisable  under  management,  it  follows  that  there 
will  be  a  considerable  amount  of  slash  left  after  cutting.  The 
close  utilization  reduces  the  slash  but  in  heavy  cuttings  it  is  still 


Fig.  124.  —  "Pine  succeeding  pine."  Excellent  reproduction  of  white  pine  on  land  cut 
clear,  having  seed  woods  adjoining,  really  the  clear  cutting  in  strips  method  of  repro- 
duction, though  accidentally  used. 


a  fire  menace.  This  is  especially  so  in  pure  coniferous  stands, 
where  the  slash  should  always  be  removed.  In  hardwood 
stands  the  tops  decay  quicker  and  where  cordwood  has  been 
taken  out  to  a  low  limit  disposal  of  the  brush  is  not  so  essential, 
as  the  leaf  litter  furnishes  the  chief  fuel  for  the  fires. 


THE   WHITE   PINE   REGION 


339 


Of  the  various  methods  of  brush  disposal  pihng  and  burning 
the  tops  as  the  logging  is  in  progress  is  silviculturally  preferable 
and  should  be  the  cheapest.  Fires  should  be  started  at  con- 
venient points  and  the  tops  thrown  on  these  fires  as  the  trees 
are  felled  and  trimmed.  When  done  in  this  way  the  cost 
should  range  from  ten  to  forty  cents  per  thousand  feet  of  lumber 
cut.  The  method  can  only  be  used  when  there  is  no  danger  of 
the  fires  spreading,  and  is  therefore  best  for  winter  operations. 
In  dry  weather  no  burning  should  be  done,  and  if  logging  is 
carried  on  it  will  be  best  to  throw  the  tops  into  piles  and  burn 
these  piles  later,  in  a  wet  season.  It  may  seem  as  though  no 
special  harm  would  be  done  if  the  fire  was  allowed  to  spread 
over  the  entire  area  logged,  since  it  is  clear  cut,  but  the  burning 
would  result  in  making  seed-bed  conditions  more  unfavorable 
for  the  pine  and  very  favorable  for  the  reproduction  of  gray 
birch.  Then,  again,  even  on  clear-cut  areas  there  is  apt  to  be 
reproduction  which  must  be  protected  as  well  as  any  seed  trees 
that  were  left. 

Methods  of  Fighting  Fires.  —  Owing  to  the  well-settled  con- 
ditions of  the  country  in  the  white  pine  region  the  more  inten- 
sive methods  of  fighting  fires,  such  as  the  use  of  bucket  pumps 
and  chemical  extinguishers,^  are  strongly  recommended.  It  is 
in  this  region  that  the  highest  development  of  the  use  of  ex- 
tinguishers has  been  reached,  by  having  special  fire  wagons 
equipped  with  extinguishers  and  all  the  necessary  accessories. 

Any  town  in  the  white  pine  region,  in  which  the  forest  fire 
hazard  is  great,  can  profitably  invest  in  one  of  these  wagons. 

Where  pumps  and  extinguishers  are  not  available  the  tools 
and  methods  of  fighting  surface  fires  and  crown  fires  described 
in  the  two  preceding  regions  should  be  employed.  In  sandy 
country  there  is  plenty  of  loose  dirt  available  and  throwing  this 
on  the  fire  is  the  best  method  next  to  the  use  of  water.  Ground 
fires  do  not  often  occur. 

Protection  Against  Grazing  Animals.  —  Since  dairying  is  the 
most  important  agricultural  pursuit  for  the  region  as  a  whole 

^  For  full  description  see  Chapter  VIII. 


340 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


a  great  deal  of  grazing  occurs  on  lands  partly  or  completely 
forested.  Damage  by  browsing  is  not  so  important  as  in  the 
northern  hardwoods  region,  because  here  the  chief  species, 
white  pine,  is  practically  immune  from  browsing  by  animals. 
The  principal  injury  through  grazing  in  the  region  is  in  lower- 
ing the  reproduction  of  a  tract,  through  partial  stocking  of  the 
forest  and  competition  of  grass  with  the  trees. 


i.'5.  —  An  open  stant: 


jf  the  white  pine  type.     I'li^  I.l  .  - 
ings  is  due  to  the  grazing  of  stock. 


-iruductiuii  in  the  opea- 


What  has  been  said  under  the  northern  hardwoods  region,  in 
regard  to  using  lands  either  altogether  for  grazing  purposes  or 
for  forestry  purposes,  appHes  in  the  white  pine  region. 

Protection  Against  Insects  and  Fungi.  —  The  white  pine  wee- 
vil is  one  of  the  most  injurious  insects  in  the  forest  of  this 
region.  It  is  abundant  everywhere  attacking  the  white  pine, 
and  should  be  looked  for  on  every  tract.  Its  habits  and  the 
method  of  prevention  have  been  given  in  Chapter  VII. 

Both  the  gipsy  ^  and  brown-tail  ^  moths  are  working  in  re- 
stricted portions  of  the  white  pine  region.     The  damage  done 

1  See  Chapter  VII. 


THE    WHITE    PINE   REGION  34I 

by  these  pests  to  forest  growth  is  so  great  that  where  they 
occur  special  methods  of  treating  the  forest  often  are  needed. 

There  are  no  serious  fungous  diseases  in  the  region  against 
which  it  is  practical  to  take  remedial  measures.  The  white 
pine  bhster  rust  has  been  found  in  a  few  cases  on  young  pines 
imported  from  Europe,  but  unless  continued  importations  of 
nursery  stock  are  made  from  abroad  the  general  spread  of  the 
disease  in  this  country  need  not  be  feared. 

The  chestnut  bark  disease  has  already  appeared  in  the  Rhode 
Island  and  Massachusetts  sections  of  the  region  and  threatens  the 
destruction  of  the  chestnut.  In  the  summer  of  191 1  the  State 
Forester  of  Massachusetts  had  a  party  in  the  field  ascertaining 
the  extent  to  which  the  disease  had  spread,  and  acquainting 
forest  owners  with  the  disease.  If  the  owners  desire  they  can 
cut  out  the  infected  trees,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  the  work  will  be 
thorough  enough  to  prevent  its  spread. 

Watershed  Protection.  —  Watershed  protection  is  needed  in 
the  white  pine  region,  not  so  much  for  regulating  steamflow  ^  as 
to  assist  in  keeping  the  streams  pure  for  drinking  purposes. 
The  large  number  of  towns  and  cities  must  be  supplied  with 
water,  and  in  New  England  the  water  is  secured  largely  from 
springs  and  streams  with  more  or  less  extensive  watersheds. 
Unless  the  water  is  filtered  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  forest  cover, 
which  prevents  surface  run-off  and  causes  the  water  to  seep 
through  the  ground  and  come  into  the  reservoirs  free  from 
impurities. 

Summary. 

1.  The  white  pine  region  is  a  manufacturing  region  with 
agriculture  and  lumbering  following  in  the  order  named. 

2.  It  is  one  of  the  three  (eastern)  white  pine  regions  and  is 
second  only  to  the  Lake  States  in  annual  cut. 

3.  It  contains  a  high  percentage  of  true  forest  soils. 

4.  The  market  conditions  are  so  favorable  as  to  encourage 
the  practice  of  forestry  on  an  intensive  scale.  In  this  respect  it 
is  one  of  the  most  promising  regions  in  the  United  States. 

1  See  explanation  given  under  northern  hardwoods  region. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE   SPROUT  HARDWOODS  REGION. 

General  Considerations. 

The  sprout  hardwoods  region  occupies  the  extreme  southern 
part  of  New  England,  including  the  greater  portion  of  Con- 
necticut and  Rhode  Island  and  a  small  area  in  the  southwestern 
corner  of  Massachusetts.  The  region  is  not  co-terminous  with 
its  New  England  boundaries,  but  extends  southward  through  a 
corner  of  New  York  State  into  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania. 
The  present  study  is  confined,  however,  to  the  New  England 
portion. 

On  account  of  its  southern  situation  and  proximity  to  the 
coast  the  climate  is  more  moderate  than  in  the  other  forest 
regions  of  New  England.  It  has  the  same  rainfall  of  forty  to 
fifty  inches,  but  in  temperature  and  duration  of  the  winter 
season  conditions  are  more  favorable  for  the  growth  of  certain 
species. 

The  region  Hes  mainly  below  the  six-hundred  foot  contour,  and 
a  great  deal  of  the  land  is  below  two  hundred  feet  in  elevation. 
In  Connecticut  a  broad  central  lowland  runs  from  New  Haven 
northward  across  the  region,  and  on  either  side  are  highlands. 
These  rise  gradually  from  near  sea  level  to  over  two  thousand 
feet  in  a  few  peaks  of  southwestern  Massachusetts.  On  the 
eastern  side  of  this  central  area  the  hills  do  not  average  over 
five  hundred  feet.  These  highlands  represent  geologically  a 
plateau  which  has  been  eroded  by  water  and  carved  into  a  more 
or  less  hilly  country.  The  eastern  highland  extends  into  the 
Rhode  Island  portion  of  the  region,  but  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  state  drops  to  somewhat  lower  levels  in  what  is  known  as 
the  Narragansett  Basin. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  the  coast,  throughout  Rhode  Island, 
342 


THE  SPROUT   HARDWOODS   REGION 


343 


and  in  the  central  lowlands  of  Connecticut,  gently  rolling  land 
is  characteristic.  In  the  northern,  and  especially  in  the  western 
part  of  the  region,  the  country  loses  this  gently  rolling  character 
and  becomes  quite  hilly. 

Extensive  stretches  of  level  plain  also  occur  in  the  central 
lowland.  The  level  or  rolling  country  of  this  plain  is,  however, 
broken  in  a  most  striking  and  picturesque  manner  by  small 


'^^^m^s^ 


Fig.  126.  —  General  view  showing  the  distribution  of  the  forest  in  the  sprout  hardwoods 
region.  In  the  left  center  is  seen  a  small  knoll  occupied  by  the  old  field  type.  The 
other  wooded  areas  are  of  the  mixed  hardwoods  type. 


areas  of  rocky  hills  and  mountains,  which  rise  abruptly  from 
the  general  level,  in  some  cases  reaching  an  elevation  of  over 
six  hundred  feet.  Differences  in  the  underlying  rock  account 
for  the  varied  topography  of  the  region,  granites,  gneisses,  and 
schists  prevailing  over  the  greater  part  of  the  area,  especially 
the  highland  portions.  In  the  central  lowland  of  Connecticut 
the  bed  rock  is  a  soft  red  sandstone,  which  has  been  worn 
down  more  rapidly  than  the  rocks  of  the  highland  areas.  Soft 
rocks  also  occur  in  the  Narragansett  Basin.  The  isolated  hills, 
rising  abruptly  from  the  central  lowland,  are  intrusions  of  hard 
trap  rock.     The  West  Rock  Ridge,  near  New  Haven,  and  the 


344  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

Hanging  Hills  of  Meriden  are  excellent  examples  of  these  trap 
ridges.  In  a  few  places  in  western  Connecticut,  especially  in 
the  northwestern  corner,  and  also  in  parts  of  the  Massachusetts 
section,  beds  of  limestone  rock  occur. 

Drainage  trends  southward  into  Long  Island  Sound.  The 
Connecticut  is  the  largest  river,  and  cuts  directly  across  the 
region.  This,  together  with  the  Housatonic,  and  its  branch 
the  Naugatuck,  and  the  Thames  drain  the  greater  part  of  the 
region.  These  streams,  where  passing  through  the  highlands, 
have  often  worn  canyon-hke  valleys,  on  the  slopes  of  which  the 
steepest  topography  is  found.  On  their  lower  reaches  most  of 
the  streams  are  tidal  and  navigable  to  the  head  of  the  tide- 
water. Small  lakes  and  ponds,  while  not  so  abundant  as  in  the 
white  pine  region,  are  still  plentiful.  The  streams  afford  many 
excellent  water  powers. 

Areas  of  swamp  are  common.  In  the  highlands  the  swamps 
occur  on  the  plateau  rather  than  in  the  valley  bottoms,  while 
near  the  coast  extensive  swamps  sometimes  occur  near  the 
main  streams. 

The  soils  owe  their  origin  to  glacial  action,  which  has  been 
present  over  the  whole  region.  A  great  variation  within  short 
distances  is  common,  ranging  from  coarse  sands  to  a  heavy  clay, 
but  the  total  amount  of  clay  soil  is  not  great.  As  a  general  rule 
the  soils  are  fertile  and  do  not  average  so  sandy  as  those  of  the 
white  pine  region.  They  are  characterized  by  the  presence  of 
abundant  loose  rock.  This  is  rarely  entirely  absent  except  in 
the  soils  of  the  central  lowland  of  Connecticut.  Here  are  fre- 
quently found  sands,  loams,  and  clays  free  from  stones. 

The  amount  of  loose  stone  present,  the  depth  of  the  soil  down 
to  the  underlying  bed  rock,  and  the  degree  of  slope  are  the 
chief  factors  determining  whether  a  soil  is  agricultural  or  best 
suited  for  forests.  About  forty  per  cent  of  the  region  must  be 
classed  as  true  forest  soil.  Approximately  this  percentage  is 
forested  at  the  present  time.  The  mountains  of  trap  rock,  with 
their  shallow  soils  and  steep  sloping  sides,  furnish  excellent 
examples  of  permanent  forest  soils. 


THE   SPROUT   HARDWOODS   REGION  345 

Long  belts  of  forest  occur  on  these  trap  ridges,  elsewhere  a 
broken  distribution  of  the  woodland  is  the  rule.  However,  in 
some  of  the  rougher  sections  of  the  highland  eighty  to  ninety 
per  cent  of  the  country  is  in  forest,  while  in  other  places,  with 
gentler  topography,  the  per  cent  of  open  land  and  forest  is 
reversed. 

This  is  a  country  in  which  the  first  settlement  dates  back 
many  years,  and  as  a  consequence  the  original  forest  has  dis- 
appeared with  but  rare  exceptions.  In  the  present  forest  the 
growth  is  made  up  chiefly  of  sprout  trees,  often  of  the  third 
and  fourth  generation.  Timber  exceeding  one  hundred  years 
of  age  is  extremely  rare. 

The  forest  is  composed  of  even-aged  mixed  hardwood  stands. 
These  are  characterized  by  the  abundance  of  chestnut,  which 
often  occurs  pure  and  frequently  forms  more  than  one-half  the 
growth  over  large  districts.  Commercially  chestnut  is  even 
more  important  than  the  area  in  the  forest  occupied  by  it  would 
indicate,  on  account  of  its  rapid  growth,  and  because  it  has  a 
wider  range  of  uses  than  any  of  the  other  species  in  the  region. 

Next  in  importance  rank  the  oaks,  the  following  five  being 
the  most  important;  white,  red,  black,  scarlet,  and  chestnut 
oaks.^ 

Chestnut  oak  makes  its  only  appearance  in  New  England  in 
this  region. 

Not  a  single  species  finds  its  optimum  range  in  the  sprout 
hardwoods  region.  The  oaks  and  chestnut  all  secure  conditions 
for  their  optimum  development  farther  to  the  south.  Gray 
birch  comes  as  near  as  any  tree  to  securing  optimum  conditions, 
but  thrives  somewhat  better  in  the  white  pine  region. 

Conifers  are  scarce,  and  not  an  important  factor  in  the  present 
forest.  Originally  quite  large  bodies  of  pitch  and  white  pine 
occurred,  but  they  were  on  the  sandier  soils  in  the  lowland 
region,  on  lands  easy  to  clear,  and  adjacent  to  the  earlier  settle- 
ments. Hence  the  large  stands  disappeared  long  ago.  Occa- 
sional isolated  individuals  or  small  clumps  of  these  conifers  may 

^  Several  other  species  of  oak  occur  botanically  withih  the  region. 


346  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

be  found.  Hemlock  and  southern  white  cedar  are  both  present, 
and  occasionally  in  commercial  quantities.  Red  cedar  is  the 
most  abundant  conifer. 

A  great  variety  of  hardwoods,  such  as  beech,  hard  and  soft 
maple,  hickory,  white,  red,  and  black  ash,  yellow  and  black 
birch,  tulip  tree  (or  whitewood  as  it  is  called  in  this  region), 
swamp  white  oak,  white  and  pin  oaks,  basswood,  butternut,  and 
poplar  are  in  mixture  with  chestnut  and  the  principal  oaks. 

Forest   Types. 

It  is  difficult  here  to  distinguish  between  temporary  and  per- 
manent types.  The  forest  in  its  species  and  mixtures  is  not  far 
distant  from  the  original  stands,  yet,  in  its  regular  form,  sprout 
origin,  and  certain  changes  in  mixture,  is  quite  different  from 
the  original  growth.  Mainly  on  account  of  the  sprout  origin  of 
all  but  the  coniferous  stands  it  is  considered  best  to  class  all  the 
types  as  temporary. 

The  types  are  six  in  number,  as  follows: 

Temporary  Forest  Types. 

1.  Mixed  hardwoods. 

2.  Hemlock. 

3.  Hardwood  swamp. 

4.  Cedar  swamp. 

5.  White  pine. 

6.  Old  field. 

I.  Mixed  Hardwoods. — This  is  the  most  important  type 
commercially  and  in  area.  No  accurate  figures  are  available, 
but  it  is  believed  that  the  type  covers  at  least  eighty  per  cent 
of  the  forest  area.  It  is  common  throughout  the  region  and 
occupies  a  wide  range  of  sites,  from  the  shallowest  soils  to  those 
deep  and  fertile  enough  for  agricultural  purposes.  The  type 
does  not  occur  on  very  poor,  sandy  soils,  or  on  swamp  sites. 
Within  it  a  wide  range  of  composition  is  included.  A  mixture 
of  oak  and  chestnut  is  characteristic,  but  all  sorts  of  variations 


THE   SPROUT   HARDWOODS    REGION 


347 


from  pure  stands  of  oak  to  pure  stands  of  chestnut  occur.  The 
quality  of  the  site  is  the  governing  factor  in  controlling  the 
composition.  On  dry,  shallow  soils  the  oak  becomes  pure;  on 
deep,  well-drained  loams  chestnut  can  be  expected  in  pure 
stands.  On  soils  of  medium  depth  the  oak  and  chestnut  meet 
on  equal  terms.     The  oaks  included  in  the  type  are  the  white, 


By  permission  of  (he  Connecticut  Stale  Forester. 

Fig.  127.  —  A  pure  stand  of  chestnut,  estimated  to  contain  22,000  feet,  board  measure,  per 
acre.     (The  mixed  hardwoods  type.) 


chestnut,  red,  black,  and  scarlet.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find 
pure  stands  of  chestnut  oak  alone  on  dry  ridges,  though  mix- 
tures of  several  species  are  more  usual. 

Other  trees,  such  as  hickory  and  soft  maple,  are  characteristic 
though  usually  in  a  subordinate  position.  Occasionally  hickory 
is  found  nearly  pure,  over  small  areas.  The  number  of  species 
in  a  single  stand  is  greatest  on  the  best  sites,  while  on  the 
shallowest  soils  only  a  few  species  grow.  On  third  quality  sites 
chestnut  oak  and  hickory  predominate. 


34^  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

The  stands  are  even-aged  in  form  and  almost  entirely  of 
sprout  origin,  although  a  few  seedling  trees  can  usually  be 
found. 

The  type  yields  all  classes  of  forest  products,  such  as  cord- 
wood,  ties,  poles,  piles,  and  lumber.  The  kind  of  product,  and 
the  yield  at  a  given  age,  depend  greatly  on  the  quality  of  the 
site,  cordwood  being  the  only  product  of  the  poorest  soils. 
The  percentage  of  chestnut  in  the  stand  greatly  influences  the 
yield  of  lumber  and  particularly  of  poles,  piles,  and  ties,  as 
many  of  the  other  species  are  not  used  for  these  purposes. 
Until  recently  reliable  figures  on  the  yield  of  the  type  had  not 
been  secured,  but  in  1910  the  Connecticut  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  in  cooperation  with  the  United  States  Forest 
Service,  made  a  thorough  study  of  the  growth  and  yield  of  the 
type.^ 

Generally  speaking,  in  stands  of  pure  chestnut  a  growth  of 
about  one  cord  per  acre  per  year  may  be  counted  on  in  all  but 
the  poorest  stands,  while  in  stands  of  pure  oak  the  growth  rarely 
exceeds  eight-tenths  of  a  cord  per  acre  per  year  on  the  better 
sites  and  may  be  as  low  as  a  quarter  of  a  cord  on  poor  soils. 
Maximum  yields  of  lumber  for  stands  containing  a  high  per- 
centage of  chestnut  run  between  20,000  and  25,000  feet,  board 
measure.  In  Connecticut  it  has  been  estimated  that  30,000  feet, 
board  measure,  is  the  maximum  possible  yield  on  average  soil 
for  a  pure  chestnut  stand  (planted)  at  the  age  of  seventy  years. 
It  is  interesting  to  contrast  this  with  the  yields  secured  from 
unmanaged  stands  of  pure  white  pine  (see  page  306) .  At  seventy 
years  a  pine  stand  gives  55,800  feet,  board  measure,  per  acre 
on  soils  of  average  quality.  These  pure  chestnut  stands,  the 
most  productive  in  lumber  of  the  hardwood  types  in  New  Eng- 
land, are  by  many  persons  erroneously  considered  to  be  as 
rapid  growing  as  white  pine  stands.  Actual  figures  prove  quite 
the  contrary  and  illustrate  the  great  superiority  of  the  white 
pine. 

2.  Hemlock. — ^The  hemlock  type  is  not  one  which  covers  a 
^  See  Bull.  96  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


THE   SPROUT  HARDWOODS   REGION 


349 


large  area,  occupying  less  than  five  per  cent  of  the  total  for- 
ested area.  In  the  original  forest  the  type  was  a  more  im- 
portant one.  It  is  generally  distributed  throughout  the  region 
on  steep  slopes  and  cool  exposures  where  there  is  an  abundant 
supply  of  atmospheric  moisture.  Stream  gorges  furnish  ideal 
locations  for  the  type. 

Hemlock  forms  thirty  to  one  hundred  per  cent  of  the  com- 
position, having  as  associates  the  chestnut  oak,  red  oak,  and 


[28.  —  The  hemlock  type  in  t 
in  mixture  with  the  hemlock 


li  1  111  M mil  and  red  oak  are 
0,000  feet,  board  measure,  per  acre. 


chestnut,  though  many  of  the  other  hardwoods  in  the  region 
may  be  present. 

The  hemlock  has  a  tendency  to  spread  over  areas  of  the 
mixed  hardwood  type  where  the  site  conditions  are  favorable. 
It  does  this  by  seeding  beneath  the  hardwoods  where  it  persists 
and  grows  in  the  shade,  due  to  its  great  tolerance.  Finally  if 
not  removed  by  fires  or  cutting,  it  will  thus  secure  for  itself  a 
place  in  the  stand  and  cause  a  reversion  to  the  hemlock  type. 

Oftentimes  the  type  is  two  storied  in  form  with  a  lower  story 
of  hemlock  and  an  upper  story  of  hardwoods.  The  most 
typical   natural   form   is   even-aged,    either   pure   hemlock   or 


350 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


mixed  hemlock  and  hardwoods,  although  in  these  stands  there 
are  apt  to  be  several  ages  of  hemlock  represented.  The  hard- 
woods are  usually  of  sprout  origin.  Sometimes,  on  account  of 
inaccessibility  on  a  steep  slope,  old  growth  of  seedling  origin 
persists. 

It  is  a  slow-growing  type,  producing  lumber,  however,  and 
giving  maximum  yields  as  high  as  stands  of  pure  chestnut  but 
at  a  greatly  advanced  age  (one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years). 


Fig.  129.  —  The  hemlock  type,  occurring  in  a  swale  on  the  summit  of  a  ridge  of  trap  rock. 
The  stand  contains  10,000  to  15,000  feet,  board  measure,  per  acre. 

3.  Hardwood  Swamp.  —  In  point  of  area  this  type  ranks 
second  in  importance,  although  probably  less  than  ten  per  cent 
of  the  total  area  is  characterized  by  it.  It  occurs  throughout 
the  region,  but  is  most  abundant  along  the  Connecticut  coast, 
especially  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  state  and  in  Rhode  Island. 

The  soils  are  not  well  drained,  and  contain  an  excess  of  moisture. 
Many  of  the  swamps  when  drained  make  excellent  agricultural 
land,  while  others  are  too  stony  for  such  purposes. 

Soft  maple  is  the  leading  tree  in  the  type,  often  growing  in 
pure  stands,  especially  in  the  wetter  swamps  but  by  no  means 


THE   SPROUT  HARDWOODS   REGION  351 

confined  to  them.  In  the  drier  situations,  a  mixed  growth 
usually  prevails  with  such  trees  as  pin  and  swamp  white  oaks, 
white  elm,  white  and  black  ash,  gray  and  yellow  birch,  and 
whitewood  in  mixture  with  the  maple. 

Very  little  lumber  is  produced  in  the  hardwood  swamps, 
most  of  the  material  being  only  fit  for  cordwood.  It  is  usually 
a  rapid-growing  type,  except  in  situations  where  water  stands 
for  a  good  part  of  the  year,  and  checks  fast  growth.  On  the 
average  a  growth  of  over  a  cord  per  acre  per  year  can  be  ex- 
pected from  the  hardwood  swamps.  Reproduction  is  almost 
wholly  by  sprouts. 

4.  Cedar  Swamp.  —  In  the  section  within  twenty  miles  or  so 
of  the  coast  are  found  occasional  swamps  of  southern  white 
cedar.  This  same  type  was  described  in  the  white  pine  region, 
to  which  reference  should  be  had  for  details.  It  covers  an  ex- 
tremely limited  portion  of  the  forest  area,  probably  a  small 
fraction  of  one  per  cent,  and  deserves  mention  chiefly  from  its 
strong  contrast  in  character  of  growth  to  the  hardwoods  swamp 
type. 

5.  White  Pine.  —  The  white  pine  type  represents  an  exten- 
sion southward  of  the  chief  type  of  the  white  pine  region.  Only 
a  small  per  cent  of  the  forest  area  is  covered  by  this  type,  which 
is  in  area  of  less  importance  than  the  hemlock  type.  Its  high 
yield  per  acre  and  the  value  of  white  pine  lumber  makes  it  a 
type  of  commercial  interest. 

Throughout  Rhode  Island  and  eastern  Connecticut  more  of 
the  type  occurs  than  elsewhere.  As  a  result  of  planting  open 
lands  with  white  pine  the  type  will  steadily  increase  in  im- 
portance. For  further  description  of  the  type  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  the  type  of  the  same  name  under  the  white  pine  region. 

6.  Old  Field.  —  This  is  a  widely  distributed  type,  occupy- 
ing lands  at  one  time  cleared,  and  covering  about  the  same 
area  as  the  hardwood  swamp  type,  hence  ranking  second  or 
third  in  importance.  The  soils  are  usually  medium  in  quaHty, 
since  the  best  have  been  reserved  for  farming  and  the  poorest 
were  never  cleared.     Red  cedar  and   gray  birch  are  the  two 


352  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

trees  which  form  the  typical  forest  growth  on  old  fields.  Pure 
stands  of  either  species  and  mixtures  of  the  two  are  all  found, 
but  pure  stands  are  more  common  than  mixtures.  Gray  birch 
is  a  species  which  requires  a  bare  soil  for  a  seed-bed,  while  red 
cedar  can  start  well  under  more  adverse  conditions,  even  in  a 
thick  sod.     This  difference  in  the  habits  of  the  two  species  ex- 


Fig.  130.  —  On  the  flat  is  a  stand  of  the  best  quality  swamp  hardwoods.  Soft  maple, 
tulip  tree,  yellow  birch,  black  birch,  and  elm  are  the  principal  species.  A  thinning  is 
needed. 


plains  why  pure  stands  now  of  one  species  and  then  of  the  other 
are  met  with  on  old  fields.  The  gray  birch  seizes  possession  of 
those  fields  which  were  abandoned  after  having  some  other  crop 
than  grass,  while  on  abandoned  pasture  or  meadow  opportunity 
was  given  the  cedar  to  form  pure  stands.  A  fire  running  over  a 
pasture  or  meadow  might  result  in  exposing  mineral  soil  and 
creating  a  seed-bed  favorable  for  gray  birch. 


THE   SPROUT   HARDWOODS   REGION 


353 


Poplar,  soft  maple,  and  black  birch  are  oftentimes  associated 
with  the  gray  birch  and  cedar.  Stands  of  all  degrees  of  density 
are  found,  from  almost  bare  fields  with  a  sprinkling  of  birch  or 
cedar  to  a  closed  canopy.  As  the  stands  grow  older  the  seeding 
up  of  the  fields  becomes  more  complete  and  the  stand  finally 
becomes  a  dense  one. 


Fig.  131.  —  A  stand  of  the  old  field  type  wliich  has  nearly  finished  the  process  of  reversion 
to  the  mixed  hardwoods  type.  A  liberation  cutting  is  needed,  removing  such  trees  as 
the  big  spreading  chestnuts  at  the  right  in  order  to  favor  the  young  growth  of  white 
oak  and  black  birch  underneath. 


Both  uneven-aged  and  even-aged  forms  of  forest  are  charac- 
teristic of  the  type.  When  gray  birch  seeds  up  an  old  field  it 
usually  takes  possession  in  one  year,  resulting  in  an  even-aged 
stand,  but  red  cedar  is  rarely  found  in  such  stands.  This  tree 
seeds  in  slowly,  and  stands  containing  a  large  per  cent  of  cedar 
are  extremely  uneven-aged  in  character. 

The  type  is  strictly  a  temporary  one,  for  as  the  stand  ad- 


354  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

varices  in  age  chestnut,  oak,  hickory,^  and  white  ash  reproduce 
and  develop  beneath  the  hght  shade  of  the  gray  birch  and 
cedar.  These  good  hardwoods  are  more  rapid  growing  than 
the  cedar  and  do  not  mature  so  early  as  the  gray  birch.  Hence 
they  are  able  finally  to  crowd  out  the  cedar  and  gray  birch  and 
change  the  type  to  the  mixed  hardwoods  type.  This  is  a  long 
process,  rarely  as  short  as  fifty  years  and  sometimes  requiring 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  for  its  completion. 

Cedar  furnishes  an  excellent  grade  of  fence  posts,  but  the 
chief  product  of  the  type  is  a  poor  quality  of  cordwood.  The 
stands  of  pure  gray  birch  are  rapid  growing  for  the  first  twenty 
years,  and  soon  after  that  time  begin  to  deteriorate,  while  those 
containing  cedar  are  extremely  slow  in  growth  through  life. 
Measurements  show  that  it  takes  about  forty  years  to  grow  a 
red  cedar  fence  post  eight  feet  long  and  four  inches  at  the  top. 

Methods  of  Handling  the   Forest. 

Intensive  methods  of  management  are  possible  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  the  sprout  hardwoods  region.  It  is  only  in 
relatively  few  places,  remote  from  the  railroads,  that  intensive 
methods  cannot  be  used,  and  here  only  because  the  sale  of 
cordwood  does  not  yield  a  profit.  Within  a  distance  of  six  miles 
from  a  railroad  a  profit  can  usually  be  secured  on  cordwood. 
Where  the  wood  is  cut  and  burned  for  charcoal  a  slight  profit 
may  be  made  at  greater  distances. 

On  account  of  the  predominance  of  hardwoods  in  the  forest 
and  because  on  many  sites  nothing  but  cordwood  is  produced, 
a  greater  percentage  of  the  forest  products  must  be  marketed  as 
cordwood  than  in  any  of  the  other  New  England  forest  regions. 
There  is  a  smaller  per  capita  consumption  of  cordwood  -  than  in 
the  northern  hardwoods  region,  because  in  this  section-  the 
cold  season  is  shorter  and  coal  is  largely  used,   even  in  the 

1  Heavy  seeded  species  such  as  chestnut,  oak,  and  hickory,  gain  a  start  on  old 
fields,  through  the  assistance  of  squirrels  which  scatter  the  seeds  widely. 

2  Estimated  to  be  twice  as  large  in  the  northern  hardwoods  as  in  the  sprout 
hardwoods  regions. 


THE   SPROUT  HARDWOODS   REGION  355 

country  districts.  In  the  white  pine  region  the  large  areas 
covered  with  pine,  which  is  used  for  other  purposes,  reduces  the 
amount  of  cordwood  to  be  disposed  of  and  makes  easier  the 
disposal  of  what  is  cut. 

The  abundant  supply  of  cordwood  in  the  sprout  hardwoods 
region  of  course  keeps  the  price  low,  and  makes  the  disposal  of 
cordwood  the  hardest  and  often  the  most  important  problem  in 
the  management  of  a  tract. 

;  The  species  of  the  greatest  commercial  importance  in  the 
region  is  chestnut,  which  until  recent  years  has  been  the  tree 
to  favor  in  management.  The  chestnut  bark  disease  (discussed 
in  Chapter  VII)  has  spread  so  generally  through  the  region  and 
been  so  destructive  in  its  work  as  to  reduce  the  value  of  the  tree 
for  management.  In  Fairfield  County,  Connecticut,  where  the 
disease  first  appeared  in  New  England,  practically  all  the  chest- 
nut has  been  destroyed.  If  this  continues  its  virulent  spread  for 
a  few  more  years  all  the  chestnut  in  the  region  will  be  destroyed 
and  of  course  the  tree  cannot  then  be  considered  as  one  to  be 
encouraged  in  management.  But  if  the  progress  of  the  disease 
is  stopped  by  natural  causes  within  a  few  years,  as  some  author- 
ities expect,  chestnut  may  still  be  favored. 

Red  oak,  on  account  of  its  rapid  growth,  commercial  value, 
and  general  distribution,  is  the  second  best  tree  to  favor,  and 
the  other  oaks  are  to  be  encouraged  on  certain  sites. 

When  present  white  ash  and  white  pine  should  be  given 
preference  over  all  other  trees. 

For  the  best  financial  returns  a  change  from  hardwood  forest 
to  coniferous  forest  is  demanded.  This  was  suggested  in  con- 
nection with  the  northern  hardwoods  region,  and,  as  there,  can 
be  brought  about  only  by  planting.  Many  of  the  sites  now 
yielding  only  hardwood  cordwood  could  be  so  handled  as  to 
produce  coniferous  lumber. 

If  the  region  was  occupied  by  forests  of  fast-growing  conifers 
no  portion  would  be  so  poorly  situated  as  to  prevent  intensive 
management. 

Planting  on  open  lands  is  already  in  progress.     Such  lands 


356 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


should  be  the  first  planted  and  until  they  are  stocked  the  problem 
of  planting  hardwood  lands  to  conifers  need  not  be  undertaken. 

Wherever  cordwood  or  charcoal  can  be  disposed  of  at  a  profit 
improvement  cuttings,  especially  thinnings,  should  be  made. 

I.  Mixed  Hardwoods.  —  At  least  two  systems  of  reproduction 
can  be  used  to  advantage  in  handling  the  different  kinds  of 
stands  which  are  included  in  this  type. 


By  permission  of  II'.  O.  Filley. 

Fig.  132.  —  Mixed  hardwoods  type  underplanted  to  white  pine  seedlings  7  years  ago. 
The  hardwoods  should  be  cut  soon,  taking  care  not  to  injure  the  pine. 


In  stands  of  pure  or  nearly  pure  chestnut  the  simple  coppice 
system  ^  can  be  applied,  using  a  rotation  of  fifty  to  sixty  years. 
Chestnut  will  coppice  vigorously  at  even  a  greater  age.  During 
the  rotation  several  thinnings  are  advised.  They  will,  of  course, 
increase  the  yield  and  will  bring  in  a  little  seedling  reproduction. 
This  latter  is  quite  necessary,  even  though  chestnut  sprouts 
well  for  a  much  longer  period  than  the  length  of  this  rotation, 
because  at  maturity  the  trees  are  so  far  apart  that  complete 
sprouting  does  not  serve  to  fully  stock  the  ground.     Seedling 

1  Refer  to  simple  coppice  system  in  the  chapter  on  "  Silvicultural  Systems." 


THE   SPROUT   HARDWOODS   REGION 


357 


reproduction  is  wanted  to  fill  the  gaps,  and  also  because  a  forest 
will  eventually  deteriorate  if  reproduced  by  sprouts  alone. 

On  the  poorest  of  the  third  quality  sites  also  the  simple 
coppice  system  will  be  the  best.  Since  the  stand  in  these  situ- 
ations is  mainly  oak  and  hickory,  whose  sprouting  capacity 
rapidly  decreases  with  age,  the  system  should  be  based  on  a 
lower  rotation,  forty  years  or  under.  The  growth  is  slow  and 
the  product  grown  will  only  be  cord  wood,  even  though  a  much 


Fig-  ^33-  —  A  reproduction  cutting  in  the  mixed  hardwoods  type  in  a  60  year  0 
oak.     Approximately  40  per  cent  of  the  volume  has  been  removed. 


longer  rotation  were  used.  As  the  third  quality  sites  are  mainly 
on  ridges  and  steep  slopes  they  are  usually  expensive  to  lumber. 
Therefore  it  will  not  pay  to  make  thinnings,  which,  because  of 
the  slow  growth,  could  furnish  but  a  small  yield  per  acre.  The 
cost  of  the  logging  is  also  a  strong  argument  in  favor  of  the 
simple  coppice  system,  as  under  it  the  stand  is  entirely  removed 
in  one  operation,  and  reproduction  assured. 

Except  on  these  extremely  poor  soils  and  where  the  stand 
is  largely  chestnut  another  system  of  reproduction  is  recom- 
mended. This  is  the  polewood  sprout  system,  which  has  been 
described  in  the  chapter  on  " Silvicultural    Systems."      It   is 


358 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


better  suited  than  the  simple  coppice  system  for  use  with  oak 
where  the  rotation  must  be  long  enough  to  produce  timber,  and 
where  expense  of  logging  and  slow  growth  do  not  prevent  thin- 
nings and  the  gradual  removal  of  the  mature  stand. 

The  length  of  the  rotation  will  depend  somewhat  on  the 
species.  Where  red  oak  is  abundant  with  a  sprinkling  of 
chestnut,  a  rotation  as  low  as  sixty  years  can  be  used  and  good 
yields  of  timber  secured.     But  when  other  oaks  compose  the 


Fig.  134.  —  Mixed  hardwood  type.  A  stand  of  chestnut  and  oak  5  years  after  being 
thinned.  Note  the  thick  leaf  litter  and  lack  of  undergrowth  showing  that  the  thinning 
was  not  too  heavy.  A  reproduction  cutting  under  the  polewood  sprout  system  will 
now  be  made.    Age  of  stand  70  years. 

stand  seventy  or  eighty  years  will  be  needed.  At  this  greater 
age  many  of  the  stumps  will  fail  to  sprout,  and  seedling  repro- 
duction must  be  relied  upon  to  fill  the  gaps.  The  details  of 
making  the  cuttings  have  already  been  described  under  the 
description  of  the  polewood  sprout  system.^  Several  thinnings 
during  the  rotation  can  be  made  under  this  system. 

Quite  a  variety  of  products  can  be  secured  from  stands  of 
the  mixed  hardwoods  type,  lumber,  ties,  poles,  and  piles  being 
the  principal  ones.  It  is  not  necessary  to  determine  in  advance 
of  maturity  the  particular  one  of  these  products  into  which  the 

^  See  chapter  on  "Silvicultural  Systems." 


THE   SPROUT  HARDWOODS   REGION  359 

timber  shall  be  cut.  This  is  governed  quite  largely  by  the 
species;  for  example,  only  chestnut  can  be  used  for  poles, 
chestnut  and  the  oaks  for  ties,  while  for  piles  and  lumber  the 
range  is  wider.  At  the  time  of  cutting  an  investigation  should 
be  made  as  to  the  most  profitable  product  to  cut  for  the  stand 
in  question.  The  best  product  will  vary  from  place  to  place 
and  season  to  season.  It  is  not  always  possible  to  sell  poles, 
except  when  they  happen  to  be  needed  for  construction  or  re- 
pair work.  Piles  are  not  salable  everywhere  and  at  all  times. 
Ties  and  lumber  are  more  uniformly  and  constantly  in  demand. 

As  a  general  rule  poles  and  piles,  when  salable,  are  the  most 
profitable  products.  Ties  and  lumber  are  often  about  equal  in 
point  of  profit,  with  lumber  leading  in  a  majority  of  cases. 
Usually  in  every  stand  it  will  pay  best  to  put  the  better  cuts 
into  lumber,  the  poorer  into  ties. 

The  management  thus  far  advised  for  the  mixed  hardwoods 
type  has  been  on  the  assumption  that  chestnut  is  desired,  and 
that  the  present  hardwood  growth  is  to  be  retained.  As  already 
explained,  the  chestnut  bark  disease  may  in  a  few  years  destroy 
the  chestnut.  If  this  happens  generally  (and  already  there  are 
tracts  where  the  chestnut  has  been  almost  exterminated),  other 
trees  should  be  introduced  to  replace  the  chestnut.  These 
should  be  conifers,  preferably  white  and  red  pine.  On  lands 
where  the  mature  chestnut  has  been  killed  the  planting  of  the 
pines  is  strongly  advised.  Unless  the  stand  was  all  chestnut  a 
few  hundred  plants  per  acre  will  be  sufficient. 

For  owners  desiring  the  greatest  ultimate  financial  returns, 
the  planting  of  pines  generally  through  lands  of  the  mixed 
hardwoods  tj^^e  is  strongly  urged.  The  planting  is  best  done 
when  the  stand  is  cut  clear  at  the  end  of  the  rotation.  For  a 
few  years  after  the  planting  the  pine  must  be  protected  by 
means  of  cleanings  from  the  fast-growing  hardwood  sprouts. 

2.  Hemlock.  —  The  selection  system  is  very  effective  if  the 
object  is  to  maintain  or  increase  the  per  cent  of  hemlock  in 
the  type,  but  usually  it  is  desirable  to  decrease  the  amount  of 
hemlock  and  convert  the  type  to  one  more  productive.     Hem- 


360  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

lock  is  such  a  slow-growing  tree  and  has  so  low  a  lumber  value 
that  it  is  less  profitable  than  the  hardwoods.  Under  certain  cir- 
cumstances, as  on  steep,  poor  soiled,  but  cool  sites,  hemlock  may 
be  as  profitable  as  any  hardwood,  for  it  may  there  produce 
lumber  while  the  hardwoods  would  only  yield  cordwood.  It 
also  makes  an  ideal  protection  forest,  and  is  often  desirable  from 
the  aesthetic  standpoint. 


By  permission  of  the  Connecticut  Stale  Forester. 

Fig.  135.  —  A  reproduction  cutting  (Shelterwood  system)  in  a  stand  of  mixed  hardwoods 


On  the  better  soils  of  the  type  and  where  neither  the  protec- 
tive nor  aesthetic  value  of  the  forest  needs  special  consideration 
the  stand  should  be  cut  clear,  taking  out  all  young  hemlock  with 
particular  care.  The  area  occupied  by  the  hemlock  and  by 
hardwoods  which  fail  to  sprout  should  at  once  be  planted  to 
pines.  This  will  result  in  a  stand  containing  a  large  percentage 
of  pine. 

3.  Hardwood  Swamp.  —  Both  the  simple  coppice  and  the 
polewood  sprout  system  are  useful  in  managing  this  type.     In 


THE   SPROUT   HARDWOODS   REGION  361 

very  wet  situations  (where  soft  maple  usually  is  pure  or  pre- 
dominates) seedling  reproduction  starts  with  difficulty  and  the 
main  dependence  should  be  placed  on  sprout  reproduction.  Thus 
the  simple  coppice  system  is  needed.  The  soft  maple  furnishes 
excellent  cordwood  and  on  the  wettest  sites  no  attempt  should 
be  made  to  grow  other  products.  A  rotation  of  thirty  to  thirty- 
five  years  will  be  sufficiently  long.  On  the  drier  sites  of  the 
type,  where  seedling  reproduction  can  be  more  easily  secured, 
the  polewood  sprout  system  is  best.  This  will  allow  of  a  longer 
rotation  and  the  growing  of  more  valuable  products  than  cord- 
wood.  Where  soft  maple  composes  the  stand  a  forty  to  fifty- 
year  rotation  will  be  long  enough,  but  with  the  other  swamp 
hardwoods  fifty  to  sixty  years  is  better.  When  present,  white 
ash,  whitewood  and  swamp  white  oak  should  be  favored.  The 
first  two,  especially,  scattered  as  single  trees  in  association  with 
soft  maple,  make  a  desirable  combination.  In  order  to  secure 
a  good  yield  of  lumber  in  forty  to  sixty  years,  frequent  thin- 
nings must  be  made. 

4,  5.  Cedar  Swamp  and  White  Pine.  —  The  methods  of  hand- 
ling these  two  types  have  been  discussed  in  the  white  pine 
region  under  the  types  of  the  same  name,  which  should  be  con- 
sulted for  details  as  similar  treatment  is  needed  in  the  sprout- 
hardwoods  region. 

6.  Old  Field.  —  The  object  in  managing  this  type  is  to 
hasten  its  conversion  into  some  more  valuable  type  of  forest. 
This  process  is  a  natural  one  but  so  slow  that  it  requires  fifty 
to  one  hundred  and  fifty  years.  No  treatment  to  improve  the 
growth  of  the  present  trees  in  the  type  is  advisable.  The  con- 
version can  take  place  in  two  ways;  either  by  artificial  repro- 
duction, the  existing  stand  being  cut  clear  and  planted,  or  by 
aiding  the  natural  seeding  of  the  hardwoods  which  is  slowly 
progressing  beneath  the  shade  of  the  old-field  species.  This 
latter  can  be  accomplished  by  cutting  out  the  inferior  species 
wherever  a  valuable  young  seedling  has  gotten  a  start,  thus  en- 
couraging its  rapid  development.  Such  cutting  must  not  be 
made  until  the  valuable  seedlings  are  already  started,  as  other- 


362  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

wise  the  cedar  and  gray  birch  are  apt  to  seed  in  again  in  the 
opening,  and  retain  longer  their  control  of  the  site. 

Waiting  for  natural  seeding  of  good  hardwoods  is  much  slower, 
but  cheaper  in  present  outlay  than  planting.  Where  a  hard- 
wood stand  is  wanted  this  method  secures  the  desired  result, 
but  the  quickest  and  largest  returns  will  be  secured  by  changing 
the  type  by  planting  to  white  and  red  pine. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  begin  planting  at  every  stage  of  de- 
velopment of  the  old-field  type.  In  all  cases  where  the  lands 
are  not  fully  stocked  the  openings  should  be  planted  at  once. 
Stands  of  cedar  with  the  trees  nearly  touching  can  be  planted, 
as  the  cedar  spreads  out  very  slowly  and  the  pine  is  encouraged 
in  height  growth  by  its  presence.  Where  the  land  is  densely 
covered  with  cedars  or  gray  birch  planting  cannot  be  under- 
taken without  preliminary  work.  The  inferior  species  must  be 
cut  clear  and  the  wood  removed,  and  brush  burned,  before 
planting  begins.  In  order  to  lessen  the  expense  of  this  opera- 
tion it  is  usually  best  to  delay  the  cutting  until  the  cedar  is 
large  enough  for  posts  and  the  birch  large  enough  to  furnish 
cordwood.  Such  a  stand  will  pay  the  costs  of  cutting  the  wood, 
and  burning  the  brush,  and  leave  a  profit  on  the  operation  be- 
sides. The  young  plantation  will  meet  the  competition  of 
sprouts  from  the  gray  birch  stumps,  and  will  need  to  be  assisted 
by  cleanings. 

Logging  Methods,  Market  Conditions,  Industries, 
Ownership  of  Woodlands. 

Logging  Methods.  —  The  logging  is  altogether  on  a  small 
scale,  and  on  account  of  the  accessibility  of  the  forest  does  not 
present  great  difficulties.  The  process  is  similar  to  that  in  the 
two  other  New  England  woodlot  regions.  Cutting,  skidding  to 
the  mill,  and  hauling  the  product  to  market  are  often  let  out  by 
contract  to  farmers  or  other  persons.  Logging  is  carried  on 
throughout  the  year,  though  during  the  hottest  months  of  the 
summer  there  is  relatively  little  done.  Snow  cannot  be  relied 
on  for  logging  work  except  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  region. 


THE   SPROUT   HARDWOODS   REGION 


3^3 


The  farmers  do  considerable  logging  themselves  during  the 
winter  months,  but  not  nearly  so  much  as  in  the  other  regions. 
Sawing  is  by  small  mills,  mostly  portable,  though  there  are 
a  number  of  stationary  mills,  run  by  water  power  or  steam, 
scattered  over  the  region.  The  portable  mills  are  moved  from 
lot  to  lot.  Oftentimes  the  owner  of  the  mill  does  not  buy 
timber  himself,  but  simply  rents  the  mill,  sawing  for  a  fixed 
price  per   thousand.     Mill  set-ups  of   75,000  to   100,000  feet. 


Fig.  136.  —  A  "C"  grade  thinning  in  a  stand  of  pure  chestnut  about  40  years  old.  Many 
of  the  suppressed  trees,  being  soft  and  hard  maples,  and  beech,  were  left  according  to 
the  French  method  of  thinning,  to  shade  the  soil.  Yield  about  28  cords  per  acre,  cut 
6  cords  per  acre.     Brush  is  piled  but  does  not  need  to  be  burned. 


board  measure,  are  considered  profitable,  and  indeed  in  many 
sections  of  the  region  set-ups  are  made  for  only  30,000  to  40,000 
feet,  board  measure. 

The  present  logging  methods  need  very  little,  if  any,  change 
to  adapt  them  for  use  in  forest  management.  Final  cutting  of 
the  stand  clean,  as  is  now  done,  is  generally  recommended  for 
all  types.  It  is  in  making  thinnings  and  cuttings  under  the 
polewood  sprout  system  that  changes  in  logging  methods  are 
needed.  The  changes  here  are  simply  to  accustom  choppers  to 
cut  the  marked  trees  (usually  the  smaller  ones)  without  injur- 


3^4  FORESTRY  IN  NEW   ENGLAND 

ing  the  standing  trees.  A  slight  addition  to  the  price  for  cut- 
ting wood  and  inspection  of  the  work  will  ordinarily  result  in 
accomplishing  what  is  desired. 

Market  Conditions.  —  Railroads  cover  the  region  thoroughly, 
very  few  points  being  over  ten  miles  from  one.  Many  trolley 
lines,  in  the  rural  communities,  give  additional  transportation 
facilities.  The  road  system  of  the  region  is  highly  developed, 
with  many  stretches  of  hard  roads,  extending  into  the  more  re- 
mote portions.  While  there  is  a  large  percentage  of  true  forest 
soils  in  the  region,  the  present  output  is  small,  since  past 
cuttings  have  exhausted  most  of  the  timber  and  lack  of  proper 
handling  and  protection  has  prevented  replacement:  Even 
when  producing  the  amount  of  wood  of  which  it  is  capable  the 
region  will  probably  grow  but  little  more  than  its  own  needs. 
It  will  never,  under  the  best  of  handling,  be  a  timber  exporting 
section,  but  should  eventually  produce  an  amount  equivalent 
to  its  own  requirements.  At  the  present  time  the  production 
of  the  more  valuable  products  is  far  below  that  point.  Cord- 
wood  is  supplied  now  for  all  local  needs. 

There  is  a  dense  population  centering  in  the  many  manufac- 
turing towns  and  cities  with  which  the  region  is  dotted. 

Industries.  —  Manufacturing  is  the  leading  industry  of  the 
region,  with  agriculture  next  in  importance,  and  strictly  forest 
industries  taking  a  third  place. 

Among  the  forest  industries  the  manufacture  of  lumber  is 
the  leading  one.  For  the  year  1909  the  cut  was  approximately 
174,000,000  feet,  board  measure,  of  which  chestnut  furnished 
about  93,000,000  feet,  board  measure.  This  is  not,  however, 
the  leading  f 01  est  region  for  the  production  of  chestnut,  since 
the  cut  in  the  southern  Appalachians  is  far  higher.  The  pro- 
duction of  oak  was  approximately  37,000,000  feet,  while  the 
balance  of  the  total  cut,  44,000,000  feet,  was  made  up  by  a 
variety  of  species,  of  which  hemlock,  hickory,  maple,  ash,  and 
birch  are  the  more  important.  Practically  all  the  lumber  cut 
is  used  within  the  region.  The  material  is  largely  of  low  grade 
and  not  suitable  for  export.     For  certain  lines  of  manufactur- 


THE  SPROUT  HARDWOODS   REGION  365 

ing,  such  as  for  furniture,  tools,  etc.,  the  local  forests  provide 
a  limited  amount  of  material,  though  they  by  no  means  provide 
the  entire  supply.  Most  of  the  locally  grown  lumber  is  consumed 
for  bridges  and  car  construction  and  in  the  construction  of 
buildings. 

Minor  wood-using  industries  and  special  wood-working  plants 
are  not  so  numerous  as  in  the  white  pine  region.  The  large 
number  of  manufacturing  plants  create  a  demand  for  wooden 
boxes,  but  the  wooden  box  making  industry  is  not  developed 
in  the  sprout  hardwoods  region,  because  the  native  timber  is 
not  so  well  adapted  for  use  in  boxes  as  is  the  leading  species 
of  the  white  pine  region. 

Chestnut  and  oak  are  cut  extensively  for  railroad  ties,  for 
steam  and  electric  roads.  It  is  impossible,  from  the  census  re- 
ports, to  obtain  the  number  of  ties  cut  in  the  region.  However, 
if  the  tie  output  were  figured  as  lumber,  it  is  probable  that  the 
results  would  show  not  over  half  the  amount  of  material  used 
for  ties  as  is  used  for  oak  and  chestnut  lumber.  In  many 
sections  of  the  region  the  cutting  of  chestnut  for  telephone, 
telegraph,  and  trolley  and  electric  lighting  poles  takes  consider- 
able timber  each  year  though  much  less  than  for  ties.  Piles  of 
chestnut,  oak,  hemlock,  and  sometimes  other  species  are  cut  in 
sections  accessible  to  the  coast. 

A  much  larger  amount  of  material  is  each  year  put  into  cord- 
wood  than  into  lumber.  A  great  part  of  this  is  material  cut  in 
connection  with  tie  and  lumber  operations,  and  which  had  to 
be  cut  in  logging  these  more  valuable  products.  A  portion  of 
the  cordwood  cut  comes  from  situations  on  which  the  hardwood 
species  can  produce  only  cordwood,  and  which  are  stocked 
with  inferior  species.  Allowing  for  all  this,  however,  there  still 
remains  a  large  share  of  the  cordwood  output  which  comes 
from  young  and  middle-aged  stands  cut  especially  for  this 
product.  This  early  cutting  of  stands  for  cordwood,  instead  of 
waiting  for  a  yield  of  ties  or  lumber,  is  an  economic  waste  which 
should  be  remedied.  The  cordwood  cuttings  should  be  con- 
fined, first,  to  utilizing  the  tops  and  inferior  trees  left  after  log- 


366 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


ging  for  better  products;  second,  to  clear  cuttings  of  inferior 
hardwood  species  and  of  valuable  hardwoods  growing  on  sites 
where  they  cannot  produce  better  products;  and  third,  to  thin- 
nings.    An  ample  supply  of  fuel  could  thus  be  secured. 

One  of  the  chief  reasons  for  the  cutting  of  young  and  middle- 
aged  stands  for  cordwood  is  to  supply  brick  and  lime  kilns  and 
brass  plants  with  wood  for  fuel  and  use  in  manufacturing  proc- 
esses.    In  northwestern  Connecticut  the  making  of  lime  is  an 


Fig.  137.  —  Chopping  out  a  thinning.     Mixed  hardwoods  type,    about  60  years  of  age, 
with  a  yield  of  35  cords  per  acre,  8  cords  per  acre  removed  in  the  thinning. 

important  industry,  while  through  the  central  part  of  the  State 
are  many  brick  yards.  Brass  plants  are  found  in  the  Nauga- 
tuck  valley  of  Connecticut.  All  these  industries  consume  large 
quantities  of  cordwood  and  the  owners  often  buy  up  young  and 
middle-aged  stands  for  the  special  purpose  of  cutting  the  trees 
into  cordwood. 

Ownership  of  Woodlands.  —  The  sprout  hardwoods  is  essen- 
tially a  woodlot  region  and  will  always  remain  in  that  class. 
Practically  all  the  woodland  was  at  one  time  owned  in  connec- 
tion with  the  farms.  At  the  present  time  a  good  many  tracts, 
large  for  the  region,  have  been  acquired.  These  are  owned  by 
wealthy  men,  in  connection  with  their  summer  homes,  or  by 


THE   SPROUT   HARDWOODS   REGION  367 

lumbermen.  Some  of  the  lime,  brick,  and  brass  companies  own 
large  tracts,  while  a  good  many  lumbermen  own  from  one  to 
several  thousand  acres  apiece.  There  may  be  a  few  holdings 
within  the  region  of  over  10,000  acres  apiece,  but  such  areas 
are  unusual.  Large  holdings  of  woodland  are  apt  to  be  made 
up  of  many  scattered  lots  rather  than  a  single  extensive  tract. 

The  states  do  not  figure  prominently  as  forest  land  owners, 
although  Connecticut  has  at  least  one  forest  reserve  within  the 
region.  Several  private  water  companies  and  municipalities 
own  large  tracts  located  on  the  watersheds  of  their  reservoirs 
supplying  drinking  water.  This  class  of  owners  is  usually  inter- 
ested in  forestry  and  in  many  instances  are  already  handhng 
their  lands  under  forestry  principles. 

Standing  timber  is  usually  sold  without  the  land,  the  owner 
retaining  this.  If  the  land  is  sold  with  the  timber  the  whole 
farm  usually  changes  hands. 

Forest  Protection. 

Forest  Fires.  —  The  forest  fires  in  the  sprout  hardwoods  region 
are  surface  fires,  feeding  on  the  litter  of  the  deciduous  leaves. 
Sometimes  in  dried-out  swamps  ground  fires  occur.  The  sur- 
face fires  are  common  in  uncut  timber  of  all  ages  as  well  as  on 
cut-over  land,  but  the  severest  fires  are  on  areas  covered  with 
slash  or  brush.  In  thick  cedar  stands  of  the  old-field  type  the 
fires  are  often  severe  and  take  the  form  of  crown  fires. 

Damage  from  forest  fires  is  felt  here  principally  in  wounds  at 
the  bases  of  trees,  admitting  insects  and  fungi,  which  later  may 
cause  death.  On  account  of  the  abundant  reproduction  by 
sprouts  there  are  comparatively  few  absolutely  barren  areas 
due  to  forest  fires,  as  occur  in  the  other  three  New  England 
forest  regions.  The  stocking  of  the  stand  may  be  greatly  re- 
duced but  rarely  is  entirely  destroyed. 

Sprouts  in  almost  all  cases  start  after  the  fire.  But  fires  and 
especially  repeated  fires  on  the  same  area  result  in  changing  the 
composition  of  the  stand.  The  species  which  sprout  vigorously, 
of  which  chestnut  is  an  example,  increase  in  proportion.     Fire- 


368 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


resistant  species,  like  oaks,  increase  in  contrast  to  easily  killed 
species.  Scrub  oak  especially  is  aided  in  spreading  by  fires. 
Light  seeded  species,  like  gray  birch,  soft  maple,  and  poplar, 
preferring  an  exposed  soil  for  a  seed-bed,  increase  on  the  burned 


Fig.  138.  —  Chestnut  and  oak  stand  40  years  old  after  a  damage  cutting  which  removed 
over  50  per  cent  of  the  stand.     The  cutting  removed  trees  injured  by  lire, 

areas,  resulting  in  a  stand  of  valuable  hardwoods  mixed  with 
these  inferior  species.  The  producing  power  of  the  woodlands 
has  in  many  cases  been  seriously  reduced  by  repeated  forest 
fires. 

In  length,  the  forest  fire  season  coincides  with  that  of  the 
white  pine  region,  extending  from  early  in  March  until  late  in 


THE   SPROUT   HARDWOODS    REGION  369 

November.  In  the  average  year  the  most  dangerous  period 
is  in  the  spring,  before  vegetation  starts,  and  then  after  the 
leaves  have  dropped  in  the  fall  comes  a  second  period  of  danger. 
The  occurrence  of  drought  may,  however,  change  the  season  of 
greatest  danger. 

The  lack  of  extensive  coniferous  stands  and  large  areas  of 
sandy  soils  makes  the  natural  fire  hazard  less  than  in  the  white 
pine  region.  On  the  other  hand,  both  regions  are  equally  ex- 
posed in  having  a  dense  population;  with  many  foreigners,  care- 
less about  fires,  attracted  by  the  manufacturing  interests;  and  in 
having  many  railroad  lines  running  through  woodlands. 

Railroads,  careless  people,  and  brush  burning  to  clear  up 
land  are  the  three  principal  causes  of  forest  fires,  given  in  order 
of  importance.  As  in  other  regions,  a  large  part  of  the  fires  are 
reported  as  of  unknown  cause,  but  probably  the  majority  of 
these  fires  are  due  to  carelessness  of  people  in  or  near  wood- 
land, which  should  be  classed  as  the  chief  cause  of  fires  in  the 
region. 

Relatively  few  fires  occur  in  the  Massachusetts  section  of 
the  region,^  as  conditions  more  nearly  approach  those  of  the 
northern  hardwoods  than  of  the  sprout  hardwoods  region.  The 
railroads  here  traverse  cleared  valleys  with  an  agricultural  popula- 
tion and  few  important  manufacturing  industries,  and  the  region 
is  therefore  fairly  free  from  this  class  of  careless  people.  Two 
chief  causes  of  forest  fires  are  thus  lacking  in  the  Massachusetts 
section. - 

Methods  of  Fire  Protection.  —  In  so  far  as  an  ideal  system  of 
fire  protection  is  concerned,  what  was  said  in  the  two  previously 
considered  regions  applies  in  the  sprout  hardwoods  region.  To 
avoid  repetition  the  reader  is  referred  for  details  to  these  regions 
and  to  Chapter  VIII. 

1  The  only  portion  of  Massachusetts  included  in  the  sprout  hardwoods  region 
is  a  small  area  in  the  extreme  southwest  corner  of  the  state.  The  portion  of 
Massachusetts  which  suffers  most  lies  in  the  pine  region. 

^  Further  information  on  forest  fires  will  be  found  in  the  appendix,  under  the 
heading  "Forest  Fire  Statistics." 


370 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


The  use  of  specially  constructed  fire  lines  is  not  recommended 
as  a  general  thing  in  this  region,  because  of  the  difficulty  of 
keeping  them  in  proper  condition.  Prolific  sprouting  of  the 
cut  stumps  on  the  line  follows  the  clearing,  while  grass  and 
herbs  are  very  troublesome.  In  sandy  soils  and  those  com- 
paratively free  from  stone,  as  is  the  case  in  many  instances 
in  the  white  pine  region,  plowing  is  possible,  and  is  a  cheap  and 
effective  method  of  keeping  the  line  clear.     But  in  the  sprout 


Fig.  139.  —  A  70  year  old  stand  of  mixed  oak  and  chestnut  2  years  after  a  second 
thinning.  Canopy  now  about  .8  density.  Present  stand  35  cords  per  acre.  Cut  in 
second  thinning,  2  years  ago,  5  cords  per  acre.  Cut  in  first  thinning,  10  years  ago, 
8  cords  per  acre. 


hardwoods  region  the  shallow,  stony  soils,  and  rough  topography 
usually  prevent  this.  Occasionally  along  the  boundary  of  a 
tract,  where  fires  may  enter  from  outside,  a  cleared  fire  line  ten 
to  fifteen  feet  wide  may  be  of  great  value.  The  brushing  out 
of  woods  roads  to  give  easy  access  to  the  forest  and  serve  as 
vantage  points  from  which  to  fight  fire  is  advisable. 

From  the  standpoint  of  fire  protection  the  disposal  of  brush 
after  logging  is  not  necessary.  The  hardwood  tops  decay 
rapidly  and  are  not  so  easily  set  on  fire  as  is  the  litter  of  leaves 
on  the  ground.     Hence  the  tops  will  not  materially  assist  the 


THE   SPROUT  HARDWOODS   REGION  371 

starting  of  a  fire,  though  they  may  increase  its  severity  when 
once  under  way.  Inasmuch  as  an  ordinary  leaf  fire  on  a  clear-cut 
area  kills  the  sprouts  which  have  started,  there  is  no  great  gain 
from  the  fire  protection  standpoint  in  removing  the  brush  and 
tops,  certainly  not  enough  to  justify  the  expense  of  the  opera- 
tion. In  making  improvement  cuttings  the  tops  should  be  cut 
up  and  then  scattered  so  that  they  lie  close  to  the  ground.  If 
cordwood  to  a  two-  or  three-inch  top  is  taken,  practically  no 
extra  work  in  brush  disposal  is  needed.  On  areas  cut  clear  it  is 
often  necessary  to  throw  the  brush  into  piles  or  windrows  to 
give  room  for  removing  the  wood.  Here  there  is  too  much 
debris  to  make  scattering  practicable,  so  the  present  practice  is 
preferable.  In  doing  this  care  should  be  taken  not  to  make 
heavy  piles  of  brush  on  top  of  stumps  which  may  sprout,  or  on 
groups  of  seedlings. 

Where  a  cut-over  area  is  to  be  planted  the  brush  must  be 
disposed  of.  This  should  be  done  by  piling  and  burning,  when- 
ever possible,  while  the  logging  is  in  progress,  in  the  manner 
described  under  the  white  pine  region.  The  burning  of  hard- 
wood tops  will  usually  cost  somewhat  more  than  coniferous 
tops. 

Methods  of  Fighting  Fires.  —  Modern  methods  of  fighting 
forest  fires, ^  such  as  the  use  of  bucket  pumps  and  chemical  ex- 
tinguishers, are  the  most  effective  in  this  region.  Probably  so 
far  the  former  has  been  employed  more  often  than  the  chemical 
extinguishers. 

Protection  against  Grazing  Animals.  —  There  is  a  great  deal 
of  grazing  by  farmers'  stock  in  the  woods,  more  in  the  scattered 
woodlots  close  to  farms  than  on  the  larger  tracts  in  the  rougher 
portions.  Here  the  producing  power  of  the  forest  has  often 
been  greatly  lowered  by  grazing,  which  has  brought  in  grass 
and  reduced  the  density  of  the  stand.  Red  cedar  is  encouraged 
at  the  expense  of  valuable  hardwoods,  and  is  sometimes  the 
only  reproduction  found  seeding  in  under  stands  of  hardwoods 
which  have  been  opened  by  grazing.     The  lands  should  be 

»  See  Chapter  VIH. 


372 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


cleared  and  devoted  to  grazing  or  else  altogether  protected  from 
stock  and  utilized  for  timber  crops.  Eventually  the  separation 
of  the  two  industries  will  be  the  most  profitable. 

Protection  against  Insects  and  Fungi.  —  There  are  no  serious 
insect  pests  threatening  the  wholesale  destruction  of  the  sprout 
hardwood  forests.  Various  borers  attack  the  wood  of  the 
chestnut,  oak,  and  hickory,  usually  effecting  entrance  through 


Fig.  140.  — The  effect  of  grazing.  In  foreground,  grazed  land,  formerly  wooded.  All  the 
growth  except  cedars  kept  out  by  the  cattle.  To  left,  ungrazed  land  thickly  stocked 
with  young  hardwoods. 


iire  scars.  This  injury  affects  the  quality  of  the  timber,  but  can 
be  prevented  only  by  stopping  the  forest  fires  which  assist  the 
insects  in  entering  the  trees. 

The  chestnut  bark  disease  is  the  most  serious  pest  in  the 
region.  Its  effect  on  forest  management  has  already  been  dis- 
cussed. In  the  present  state  of  knowledge  it  must  be  classed 
as  a  forest  pest  which  there  is  no  practicable  way  of  combating.^ 

Watershed  Protection.  —  As  in  the  white  pine  region,  water- 
shed protection  is  needed  here  in  order  to  assist  in  keeping  cer- 

1  See  Chapter  VII,  where  the  habits  and  work  of  the  chestnut  bark  disease 
are  given. 


THE   SPROUT  HARDWOODS   REGION  373 

tain  streams  pure  for  drinking  purposes  rather  than  for  regulat- 
ing stream  flow.^  To  supply  the  dense  population  with  water 
there  are  many  private  and  municipal  water  companies,  whose 
watersheds  should  be  forested,  unless  the  water  is  filtered. 

Summary. 

1.  This  is  a  manufacturing  region,  with  agriculture  second 
and  lumbering  of  subordinate  importance. 

2.  It  is  a  hardwood  region,  without  virgin  timber,  the  forest 
being  of  sprout  origin,  and  with  the  woodland  mainly  in  small 
holdings. 

3.  There  is  a  large  per  cent  of  the  area  which  is  true  forest 
soil,  and  this  when  properly  managed  will  go  far  toward  produc- 
ing the  amount  of  wood  needed  by  the  region. 

4.  Market  conditions  are  so  good  as  to  place  the  region,  so 
far  as  New  England  is  concerned,  second  only  to  the  white  pine 
region  in  offering  possibilities  for  the  practice  of  forestry. 

'  See  explanation  given  under  northern  hardwoods  region. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
THE  PROGRESS   OF  FORESTRY  IN   NEW  ENGLAND. 

The  six  New  England  States  have  made  more  progress  in 
forest  legislation,  in  forest  administration,  and  in  the  general 
forestry  educational  movement  than  any  other  group  of  states 
in  the  country.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  point  out 
the  general  policies  that  are  being  pursued  in  the  different  states. 
These  various  governments  have  worked  out  their  several 
schemes  of  forest  administration  quite  independently  of  the 
national  government,  although  no  doubt  unconsciously  taking 
many  ideas  from  the  United  States  Forest  Service  as  well  as 
from  other  states.  Connecticut,  in  1901,  first  established  the  po- 
sition of  state  forester,  in  which  she  was  soon  copied  by  Massa- 
chusetts. Rhode  Island  was  the  next  to  fall  into  line.  Vermont 
then  followed  the  example  of  the  states  to  the  south,  first  in 
establishing  a  system  of  fire  wardens,  then  a  state  nursery,  and 
in  1908  creating  the  position  of  state  forester.  New  Hampshire 
has  now  followed  the  other  states  in  all  of  these  lines,  so  that 
Maine  is  to-day  the  only  state  without  a  regular  forest  service. 

In  tracing  the  history  of  this  forestry  movement  in  New 
England  a  singular  fact  stands  out,  namely,  that  the  movement 
owes  its  success  almost  entirely  to  the  foresight  of  city  men, 
men  of  large  business  interests,  often  entirely  unconnected  with 
the  forests.  Except  for  the  fire  protective  measures  of  Maine 
and  northern  New  Hampshire,  it  may  be  said  that  the  lumber- 
men, who  should  have  been  most  interested,  have  done  the  least 
for  the  advancement  of  this  movement.  It  can  be  as  strongly 
asserted  that  the  farmers,  who,  as  a  class,  will  benefit  nearly  as 
much  as  the  lumbermen,  have  never  taken  the  initiative  in  wise 
forestry  legislation,  although  they  have  generously  supported 


THE   PROGRESS   OF   FORESTRY   IN  NEW   ENGLAND        375 

such  measures  when  they  have  been  advocated  in  the  various 
legislative  bodies. 

One  incident  of  the  forestry  history  of  New  England  which 
should  not  be  overlooked,  and  perhaps  the  only  incident  that 
has  thus  far  affected  all  the  New  England  States,  was  a  con- 
ference held  in  Boston  in  November,  1908.  This  meeting  which 
was  called  by  Gov.  Curtis  Guild,  for  several  years  president  of 
the  American  Forestry  Association,  and  now  American  Ambas- 
sador to  Russia,  took  the  form  of  a  two  days'  Conservation  Con- 
gress for  the  discussion  of  such  subjects  as  forestry,  fruit  growing, 
good  roads,  the  shell-fish  industries,  etc.  There  were  present 
the  governors  and  governors-elect  of  the  various  New  England 
States,  the  members  of  Congress  from  New  England  and  a  large 
number  of  experts  and  delegates  appointed  by  the  various  gov- 
ernors. The  results  of  this  meeting  along  forestry  lines  have 
been  much  more  far  reaching  than  could  have  been  anticipated 
or  even  hoped  at  the  time. 

Throughout  the  decade  since  1901,  while  the  states  have  been 
formulating  and  developing  their  several  forestry  policies,  a 
movement  quite  apart  from  these  influences  has  been  steadily 
making  headway.  This  movement,  with  headquarters  at  Boston, 
had  for  its  object  the  acquisition  by  the  federal  government  of 
large  tracts  of  forest  lands  in  the  White  Mountains.  Political 
expediency  soon  led  to  the  joining  of  interests  on  the  part  of 
these  people  with  those  who  were  striving  for  similar  national 
forests  in  the  Southern  Appalachians.  Several  times  the  ap- 
propriation bill  providing  for  these  purchases  passed  one  house 
of  Congress  but  failed  in  the  other.  It  was  from  start  to  finish 
bitterly  opposed  by  Speaker  Cannon  and  was  finally  held  by  its 
enemies  to  be  unconstitutional.  Its  friends  decided,  whether 
wisely  or  not  we  cannot  say,  that  such  purchases  could  only  be 
made  under  the  clause  in  the  Constitution  which  gives  Congress 
the  right  to  regulate  interstate  commerce.  The  bill  was,  there- 
fore, drafted  to  provide  for  the  purchase  of  such  forests  as  have 
an  effect  upon  the  run-ofif  of  navigable  streams.  After  a  number 
of  years  of  agitation  and  many  discouraging  episodes,  the  friends 


376  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

of  this  movement,  notably  the  Society  for  the  Protection  of  the 
New  Hampshire  Forests,  and  the  American  Forestry  Associa- 
tion, were  rewarded  for  their  efforts  by  the  passage  of  the 
"Weeks'  Bill"  on  March  i,  1911. 

This  bill  provides  a  commission  for  the  purchase  of  forest 
tracts  meeting  the  aforenamed  requirements  in  states  whose 
legislatures  have  passed  enabling  acts.  So  far  New  Hampshire 
and  Maine  are  the  only  New  England  States  which  have  made 
such  provision.  While  the  bill  provided  that  the  tracts  for  pur- 
chase be  selected  and  appraised  by  the  Forest  Service  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  administered  by  it  after  purchase 
in  the  same  way  as  the  western  national  forests,  it  also  provides 
that  the  Geological  Surve}^  of  the  Interior  Department  is  to 
decide  whether  or  not  the  proposed  tracts  affect  navigable 
streams.  This  branch  of  the  government  is  apparently  not  in 
entire  sympathy  with  the  purposes  of  the  bill,  and  has  delayed 
the  work  of  acquisition  so  much  that  at  this  writing,  nearly  one 
year  after  the  passage  of  the  bill,  only  a  few  areas  in  the  Southern 
Appalachians  have  been  purchased,  although  many  tracts  in 
New  Hampshire  have  been  approved  by  the  Forest  Service. 
The  unfortunate  thing  about  this  delay  is  that  at  the  end  of 
each  fiscal  year  (July  i),  unexpended  appropriations  lapse,  and 
can  only  become^  reavailable  by  another  act  of  Congress. 

There  are  in  connection  with  this  law  two  views  which  are 
perhaps  equally  sound,  just  as  from  the  first  establishment  of 
our  federal  government  there  has  been  the  theory  of  a  strong 
federated  government,  and  the  theory  of  a  confederation  of 
strong  state  governments.  The  people  of  New  Hampshire  have 
been  urgent  in  their  demands  for  a  national  forest  in  the  White 
Mountains,  considering  the  project  solely  as  a  great  park,  and, 
therefore,  as  a  money  outlay.  The  time  will  come  when  it  will 
be  realized  that  well-managed  governmental  forests  are  some- 
thing more  than  parks;  and  when  the  revenue  from  them 
exceeds  the  expenditures  for  improvements,  the  states  will  regret 
that  their  lawmakers  were  not  far-sighted  enough  to  provide  for 
state  rather  than  national  purchase.     It  behooves  every  legisla- 


THE   PROGRESS   OF    FORESTRY    IN   NEW   ENGLAND        377 

ture,  therefore,  and  especially  those  committees  having  such 
matters  in  charge,  to  carefully  consider  this  question  in  all  its 
phases  before  inviting  the  assistance  of  the  federal  government 
in  solving  its  problems.  However,  there  can  be  but  one  alterna- 
tive. It  is  inexcusable  for  any  state  to  decline  this  splendid 
offer  of  assistance  unless  it  is  willing  to  take  the  necessary 
measures  for  the  acquisition  of  state  forests  on  an  adequate 
scale. 

Section  2  of  the  "  Weeks'  Bill  "  providing  for  a  system  of  fire 
protection  on  the  watersheds  of  navigable  streams,  is  perhaps 
of  more  general  interest  in  New  England  than  the  part  of  the 
bill  providing  for  land  purchases.  This  gives  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  $200,000,  available  until  expended,  for  cooperation 
with  the  various  states  in  the  prevention  of  forest  fires  on  the 
watersheds  of  navigable  streams.  The  law  stipulates  that  no 
state  shall  receive  from  the  federal  government,  in  any  one  year, 
a  sum  greater  than  it  spends  itself  in  the  sarhe  kind  of  work. 
The  United  States  Forest  Service,  which  has  the  administration 
of  this  section  in  charge,  under  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture, 
limited  the  amount  to  be  spent  in  any  state  for  the  fiscal  year 
beginning  July  i,  191 1,  to  $10,000.  It  further  decided  that  this 
federal  money  should  all  be  spent  in  hiring  men  to  prevent  forest 
fires  rather  than  for  fire-fighting  equipment,  or  for  extinguishing 
fires.  In  many  states  where  a  more  or  less  adequate  system  of 
fire  wardens  was  already  in  operation,  this  law  marked  a  new 
milestone,  and  made  fire  patrol  possible,  which  is  a  long  step  in 
advance  of  mere  extinguishing  measures. 

One  of  the  most  important  forestry  problems  of  New  Eng- 
land, as  well  as  of  other  sections  of  the  country,  is  the  taxa- 
tion of  forest  lands.  It  is  now  very  generally  conceded  by 
economists  that  the  general  property  tax  is  not  a  just  form  of 
forest  taxation.  Until  recently  it  can  probably  be  said  that  quite 
as  many  land  owners  benefited  by  the  lax  system  of  taxation  as 
were  injured  by  it,  and  since  overtaxation  largely  fell  on  non- 
residents the  system  has  persisted.  But  with  the  present  tend- 
ency to  assess  all  property  at  its  true  value  conditions  have  been 


378  FORESTRY   IN   NEW  ENGLAND 

changed.  There  can  be  no  question  that  the  actual,  present 
value  forms  the  only  proper  basis  for  assessment  under  the 
present  system,  and  that  the  rate  should  be  reduced  according 
as  the  tax  list  is  raised.  However,  this  cannot  but  work  a  hard- 
ship on  woodland  owners  on  account  of  the  nature  of  their 
property  which  only  produces  a  crop  after  a  long  period  of  years, 
but  which  is  taxed  crop  and  land,  year  after  year.  Under  this 
system  it  is  quite  possible  for  an  owner  to  have  paid  in  taxes 
from  twenty  to  fifty  per  cent  of  the  value  of  his  crop  by  the  time 
it  is  harvested. 

Up  to  the  present  time  no  adequate  measures  have  been 
taken  in  New  England  to  meet  this  serious  situation,  although 
several  investigations  and  reports  have  been  made.  In  a  radical 
measure  of  this  kind  which  in  some  states  requires  an  amend- 
ment to  the  State  Constitution,  it  is  doubtful  if  conservative 
New  England  will  take  the  lead  in  constructive  legislation. 
Wisconsin,  which  now  stands  for  progress  in  so  many  lines  of 
legislation,  has  recently  issued  a  report  on  this  subject,  with 
certain  recommendations  which  we  believe  will  eventually  form 
the  basis  of  legislation,  not  only  in  the  middle  West  but  through- 
out the  country.  This  report  says:  "With  respect  to  timbered 
land  the  general  property  tax  is  administratively  unworkable." 
The  substance  of  the  recommendations  here  made  is  to  allow 
owners  of  woodlots  not  exceeding  forty  acres  in  the  agricultural 
portions  of  the  state,  and  owners  of  large  forest  tracts  to  apply 
to  the  State  Board  of  Forestry  to  have  their  lands  especially 
classified  for  taxation.  Lands  so  classified  shall  be  managed 
under  the  direction  of  the  State  Board.  The  woodlots  shall  be 
assessed  at  not  to  exceed  $io  an  acre  and  the  large  forest  areas 
at  not  to  exceed  $i  an  acre.  In  neither  case  are  the  standing 
trees  to  be  assessed.  When  any  trees  are  cut  they  are  to  be 
taxed  at  the  rate  of  ten  per  cent  of  their  gross  stumpage  value. 

A  similar  law  would  be  of  great  benefit  to  New  England. 

The  various  states  are  here  treated  in  the  order  in  which  they 
adopted  definite  forestry  policies.  Section  I  treats  of  Forest 
Administration;  Section  II,  of  Forestry  Practice. 


THE  PROGRESS   OF   FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND        379 

I.  Forest  Administration. 
Connecticut. 
Administration. 

A.  —  Connecticut  was  the  first  state  in  New  England  to  adopt 
a  forestry  policy  and  to  employ  a  state  forester,  having  made  a 
beginning  as  early  as  the  spring  of  1901,  when  a  forester  was 
appointed  in  the  Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

All  forestry  work  in  Connecticut  is  under  the  direction  of 
the  state  forester,^  who  is  appointed  by  the  board  of  control 
of  the  Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  and  is  a 
member  of  the  station  staff.  His  office  is  at  the  experiment 
station  in  New  Haven  and  his  salary  is  paid  by  the  station. 
The  current  appropriations  by  the  state  and  the  station  avail- 
able for  forestry  purposes  for  the  year  191 1  were  approximately 
$10,000.  The  legislature  of  191 1  estabHshed  the  position  of 
assistant  state  forester,  who  is  also  a  member  of  the  Experiment 
Station  staff. 

Fire  Service. 

B.  —  The  state  forester  is  ex-officio  state  forest  fire  warden. 
Town  fire  wardens  are  appointed  by  the  board  of  selectmen  of 
the  various  towns,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  state  forester. 
These  town  wardens  are  required  to  divide  their  towns  into  two 
or  more  districts  and  appoint  district  wardens  in  charge  of  them. 
Where  city  and  town  boundaries  are  co-terminous,  the  chief  of 
the  fire  department  is  ex-officio  warden. 

The  fire  wardens  are  entrusted  with  preventing  all  forest 
fires  and  enforcing  all  laws  pertaining  to  fires.  They  have 
authority  to  arrest  without  warrant  any  person  taken  in  the  act 
of  violating  any  of  the  laws  for  the  protection  of  the  forests. 
In  seasons  of  drought,  wardens  may  establish  patrols,  and,  in 
case  of  fire,  may  summon  male  residents  between  the  ages  of 
eighteen  and  fifty,  may  destroy  fences,  plow  land,  and  set  back 
fires. 

*  The  present  state  forester  is  Mr.  Samuel  N.  Spring. 


380  FORESTRY   IN  NEW   ENGLAND 

The  fire  wardens  are  paid  at  the  rate  of  thirty-five  cents  an 
hour  for  all  time  spent  in  the  performance  of  their  duties  as 
wardens;  the  pay  of  other  employees  at  tires  is  fixed  by  the 
selectmen,  but  is  not  to  exceed  twenty  cents  an  hour.  All  bills 
are  paid  by  the  town  in  which  the  lire  occurred,  after  first  being 
sent  to  the  state  forester  for  examination  and  record  and  after 
being  approved  by  the  selectmen.  The  towns  are  annually 
reimbursed  for  one  quarter  of  this  expenditure  by  the  county 
and  one  quarter  by  the  state. 

A  law  requiring  permits  to  be  secured  from  the  fire  wardens 
for  the  burning  of  brush  during  certain  seasons  of  the  year  has 
aided  in  lessening  the  number  of  fires  started  from  burning  brush. 

In  July,  191 1,  the  state  forester  entered  into  an  agreement 
under  the  Weeks'  law  with  the  United  States  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture to  cooperate  in  the  prevention  of  fires  on  the  watersheds 
of  navigable  streams  in  Connecticut,  as  he  was  authorized  by 
Act  of  the  General  Assembly  of  191 1.  This  act  provided  that 
the  State  Forest  Fire  Warden  shall  take  such  steps  as  he  deems 
necessary  to  provide  for  the  prevention  and  control  of  fires  in 
groups  of  towns,  may  appoint  and  equip  patrolmen,  establish 
and  equip  fire  lookout  stations,  etc.  Patrolmen  are  given  the 
right  to  arrest,  without  warrant,  offenders  of  the  forest  laws. 

One  thousand  dollars  was  allotted  Connecticut  in  191 1  under 
the  Weeks'  law  but  no  expenditures  were  made,  since  the  fall 
season  was  not  dry. 

Educational  Work. 

C.  —  The  Yale  Forest  School  was  established  as  a  graduate 
department  of  Yale  University  in  1900,  and  has  taken  a  leading 
part  in  the  training  of  professional  foresters,  especially  for  the 
rapidly  growing  government  service. 

The  Connecticut  Agricultural  College  at  Storrs  offers  a  three- 
hour  course  in  forestry  during  the  senior  year,  and  special 
lectures  are  given  by  the  state  forester.  There  are,  however, 
in  Connecticut  no  forestry  courses  open  to  farmers  and  farm 
boys  other  than  the  regular  students  of  the  Agricultural  College. 


THE   PROGRESS  OF   FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND        38 1 

All  forest  extension  work  is  under  the  direction  of  the  state 
forester,  who  with  his  assistant  lectures  before  organizations 
of  the  state,  holds  forestry  exhibits  at  the  agricultural  fairs,  and 
in  other  ways  is  doing  much  to  arouse  an  interest  in  forestry. 

The  press  of  the  state  has  been  rather  indifferent  to  the  needs 
of  the  state  from  a  forestry  standpoint  and,  although  friendly  to 
the  cause,  has  not  been  as  aggressively  back  of  the  movement  as 
in  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  and  Vermont. 

Much  of  the  progress  in  Connecticut  has  been  due  to  the 
activities  of  an  unusually  energetic  forestry  association  which 
has  given  splendid  support  to  Dr.  E.  H.  Jenkins,  the  director 
of  the  experiment  station,  who  originated  the  present  forestry 
movement  in  Connecticut.  Through  its  presidents.  Prof.  H.  S. 
Graves,  now  forester  of  the  United  States,  and  Mr.  Theodore  L. 
Bristol  of  Ansonia,  and  its  secretary,  Mr.  Frank  Stadmueller, 
the  Connecticut  Association  has  done  much  not  only  in  fram- 
ing legislation,  but  in  the  general  educational  movement  of  the 
state. 

State  Forests. 

D.  —  As  Connecticut  was  the  first  state  in  New  England  and 
one  of  the  first  in  the  country  to  employ  a  state  forester,  it  was 
also  one  of  the  first  to  purchase  state  forests.  While  it  cannot 
be  said  that  the  legislature  has  come  to  a  full  appreciation  of 
the  value  of  state  forests,  the  beginnings  made  in  this  direction 
are  encouraging.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  state  forests, 
especially  where  large  areas  are  planted,  do  more  to  arouse 
public  interest  in  forestry  than  anything  else.  This  has  been 
noted  especially  in  the  case  of  the  state  forest  in  Union,  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  state.  At  the  time  this  forest  was  pur- 
chased there  was  not  only  no  interest  in  forestry  in  that  section 
of  the  state,  but  there  was  an  open  attitude  of  derision.  Within 
two  years  of  its  purchase  and  planting,  this  attitude  was  almost 
entirely  changed  to  one  of  interest,  so  that  now  it  is  one  of  the 
most  progressive  parts  of  the  state.  Several  large  private  hold- 
ings within  a  few  miles  are  now  being  managed  under  forestry 


382  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

principles,  and,  in  the  summer  of  1911,  a  fire  station  was  main- 
tained cooperatively  by  several  adjoining  towns,  a  thing  which 
would  have  been  impossible  five  years  previously. 

The  first  state  forest  in  New  England  was  purchased  by  the 
first  state  forester,  Mr.  Walter  Mulford,  in  Portland,  near  the 
geographical  center  of  the  state.  This  tract  of  hardwood  sprout 
land  consists  of  a  little  over  one  thousand  acres.  Many  por- 
tions have  been  given  improvement  thinnings,  and  open  areas 
have  been  planted.  A  series  of  special  experiments  in  group 
thinnings  was  begun  in  1905,  supplemented  by  the  establishment 
of  sample  acres  with  control  plots  to  determine  the  effect  of 
various  grades  of  thinning. 

Another  smaller  forest  was  purchased  in  Simsbury  to  demon- 
strate the  possibiHty  of  preventing  forest  fires  in  one  of  the  worst 
situations  in  the  state,  a  sand  plain  traversed  by  a  railroad 
which  had  been  responsible  for  almost  annual  conflagrations. 
Through  the  cooperation  of  the  state,  the  town,  and  the  railroad, 
these  fires  have  been  practically  eliminated  and  the  land  planted 
with  pines. 

The  present  areas  of  the  state  forests  are  as  follows: 

Portland noo  acres. 

Union 287  acres. 

Simsbury 130  acres. 

Total  15 1 7  acres. 

One  of  the  chief  needs  of  Connecticut  is  an  extension  of  this 
state  forest  policy  into  every  portion  of  the  state  and  the  creation 
of  at  least  half  a  dozen  other  tracts  large  enough  to  be  handled 
economically.  The  original  act  making  the  purchase  of  these 
forests  possible  Hmited  the  purchase  price  to  $4.00  an  acre.  At 
that  time  the  price  was  suflicient  but  the  funds  available  were 
entirely  inadequate.  The  General  Assembly  of  1909  appro- 
priated $5000,  available  until  expended,  but  this  could  not  be 
wisely  invested  because  of  the  restriction  on  the  price  and  the 
fact  that  land  values  had  risen.  This  maximum  price  for  land 
has  now  been  increased  to  $8  an  acre. 


THE   PROGRESS   OF   FORESTRY   IN  NEW   ENGLAND        383 

State  Nursery. 

E. — As  early  as  1901,  the  experiment  station  started  in 
Windsor  an  experimental  forest  nursery  for  the  raising  of  various 
kinds  of  forest  seedlings.  In  connection  with  it,  a  series  of 
experimental  plantations  on  sand-plain  land  were  started  and 
have  been  uninterruptedly  continued  so  that  to-day  they  form 
the  most  interesting  experimental  tract  of  forest  plantations  in 
New  England,  amply  demonstrating  what  species  are  and  are  not 
suitable  for  sand-plain  planting.  Many  people  have  been  saved 
the  expense  and  disappointment  of  planting  such  lands  with 
catalpa,  poplar,  and  maple,  and  have  been  taught  the  value  of 
Scotch,  red,  and  white  pine  by  an  inspection  of  these  plantations. 

In  1906,  it  had  become  apparent  that  the  only  reason  that 
forest  planting  was  not  extensively  carried  on  among  private 
owners  was  an  absolute  lack  of  plant  material  at  reasonable 
prices.  The  experiment  station,  therefore,  adopted  the  poHcy, 
which  has  since  been  followed  in  other  states  both  in  and  out  of 
New  England,  of  furnishing  forest  seedlings  at  cost  price.  Not 
being  able  to  supply  the  demand,  large  quantities  were  imported 
from  Europe  and  distributed  at  wholesale  rates.  Forest  plant- 
ing became  so  popular  that  an  extensive  private  nursery  company 
has  been  estabHshed,^  the  first  company  started  in  New  England 
for  the  avowed  purpose  of  raising  seedlings  at  prices  conducive 
to  forest  planting.  With  the  establishment  of  this  company  and 
others  in  more  recent  years,  it  has  become  unnecessary  for  the 
state  to  maintain  a  nursery  to  supply  stock  for  private  planters. 
A  small  state  nursery  will  be  maintained  to  grow  stock  for 
planting  on  the  state  forests. 

Taxation. 

F.  —  The  General  Assembly  of  191 1  very  properly  appointed 
a  commission  consisting  of  the  state  tax  commissioner,  the  state 
forester,  and  three  others  to  investigate  the  taxation  of  woodlands, 
and  report  a  bill  to  the  next  General  Assembly.     It  is  hoped 

^  The  North-Eastern  Forestry  Company,  New  Haven,  Connecticut. 


384  FORESTRY   IN  NEW   ENGLAND 

that  this  report  when  made  will  receive  more  serious  consider- 
ation on  the  part  of  the  legislature  than  did  a  very  admirable 
report  on  this  subject  made  in  Massachusetts  in  1905. 

The  only  special  forest  tax  law  at  present  in  Connecticut  is 
one  exempting  forest  plantations  from  taxation  for  a  period  of 
twenty  years.  This  exemption  takes  effect  immediately  after 
planting.  The  law  as  amended  by  the  General  Assembly  of 
191 1  very  unfortunately  does  not  limit  the  exemption  to  lands 
of  low  value.  There  is,  therefore,  nothing  to  prevent  the 
owner  of  valuable  city  lots  thus  securing  exemption,  provided 
they  are  at  least  an  acre  in  size. 

Massachusetts. 
Administration. 
A. — Massachusetts  was  the  second  New  England  State  to 
estabhsh  the  position  of  state  forester,^  having  passed  the  law 
providing  for  that  ofhce  in  1904.  The  state  forester  is  appointed 
by  the  Governor,  and  is  ex-officio  a  member  of  the  State  Board 
of  Agriculture.  Under  him  are  three  assistant  foresters  in  charge 
respectively  of  moth  work,  forest  management,  and  nursery  work. 
There  are  also  assistants  in  charge  of  forest  fire  work,  and  of 
moth-disease  work.  The  moth  work  is  organized  under  fifteen 
divisions,  each  in  charge  of  a  division  superintendent.  The 
appropriations  are  $20,000  for  forestry  proper,  $5000  for  lire 
prevention,  and  $315,000  for  moth  work. 

Fire  Service. 

B.  —  Town  fire  wardens  are  appointed  by  the  selectmen  upon 
the  approval  of  the  state  forester.  These  wardens  are  responsible 
for  extinguishing  fires,  and  are  empowered  to  appoint  deputy 
wardens  and  to  employ  such  assistance  as  is  needed.  Wardens 
have  the  right  to  cross  lands  and  set  back  fires  without  being 
Hable  for  trespass. 

In  towns  so  voting,  a  written  permit  from  the  fire  warden  is 

^  The  present  state  forester  is  Mr.  Frank  W.  Rane. 


THE   PROGRESS   OF   FORESTRY   IN   NEW    ENGLAND        385 

necessary  to  build  a  lire  in  the  open  between  March  i  and  De- 
cember I.  The  state  forester  may  use  part  of  his  appropriation 
not  to  exceed  $2000  a  year  for  paying  the  traveling  expenses  of 
wardens  to  conventions  within  the  state. 

The  state  law  requires  that  every  locomotive  be  provided 
with  a  spark  arrester.  The  legislature  of  1910  prohibited  the 
flying  of  fire  balloons. 

Another  provision  of  the  Acts  of  19 10  permits  the  state 
forester  to  reimburse  every  town  up  to  $250  for  money  spent  by 
the  town  for  apparatus  to  be  used  in  extinguishing  or  preventing 
forest  fires,  provided  an  equal  expenditure  is  made  by  the  town 
and  that  such  assistance  cannot  be  rendered  to  towns  with  total 
valuation  of  property  exceeding  $1,500,000.  The  state  appro- 
priates yearly  $5000  for  the  expenditures  under  this  law. 

Another  of  the  1910  acts,  intended  to  lessen  the  number  of 
fires  set  by  foreigners  in  southeastern  Massachusetts,  provides 
that  it  is  unlawful  for  any  unnaturalized,  foreigii-born  person  to 
pick  wild  berries,  or  flowers,  or  to  camp  or  picnic,  upon  any  land 
of  which  he  is  not  the  owner  in  Barnstable  or  Plymouth  counties 
without  written  permission  of  the  owner  or  owners  of  the  land. 

Massachusetts  received  in  191 1  an  allotment  of  $1800  under 
the  Weeks'  Bill  for  the  prevention  of  fires  on  the  watersheds  of 
the  navigable  streams.  Only  a  portion  of  the  sum  was  used,  this 
being  expended  for  hiring  patrols,  lookout  men  and  assistants. 

Educational    Work. 

C.  —  Harvard  maintains  in  connection  with  its  School  of 
Applied  Science  a  two  years'  forestry  course,  open  to  college 
graduates.  The  laboratory  and  lecture  work  at  Cambridge  is 
supplemented  by  field  work  on  the  Harvard  forest,  a  tract  of  2000 
acres  at  Petersham,  Massachusetts. 

The  Massachusetts  College  of  Agriculture  at  Amherst  has 
now  established  a  course  in  farm  forestry  and  it  is  intended  in 
connection  with  this  course  to  carry  on  extension  work.  Al- 
together this  seems  to  be  the  most  useful  forestry  work  thus  far 
undertaken  by  any  of  the  New  England  agricultural  colleges. 


386  FORESTRY  IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

The  state  forester  does  a  great  deal  by  means  of  publications, 
lectures,  and  exhibits  to  arouse  an  interest  throughout  the  state 
in  better  forest  management. 

The  Massachusetts  Forestry  Association  has  been  an  active 
agent  in  arousing  public  interest  in  forestry,  in  the  care  of  shade 
trees,  the  prevention  of  fires,  and  the  control  of  the  injurious 
forest  insects. 

State  Forests. 

D.  —  Massachusetts  has  no  state  forests  in  the  true  sense  of 
the  term,  although  the  state  owns  five  reservations  aggregating 
15,000  acres,  including  the  Blue  Hills,  Graylock  Mountain, 
Wachusett  Mountain,  Mount  Tom,  and  Mount  Everett. 

There  is  also  a  law  giving  the  state  forester  authority  to  pur- 
chase tracts  of  not  exceeding  eighty  acres  in  extent  and  of 
reforesting  the  same.  In  connection  with  this,  there  is  a  clause 
making  the  repurchase  of  these  lands  possible  by  the  expendi- 
ture of  the  original  price,  the  cost  of  planting,  interest,  etc. 
Under  this  law,  3000  acres  have  been  planted  in  various  parts 
of  the  state.  The  wisdom  of  this  policy  has  often  been  ques- 
tioned. Judging  from  the  experience  of  other  states  there  seems 
to  be  little  reason  for  the  state  to  undertake  the  planting  of 
private  lands,  which  it  virtually  does  under  this  provision,  if 
the  original  owners  care  to  repurchase. 

State  Nursery. 

E.  —  The  state  maintains  a  nursery  at  Amherst,  which  was 
established  largely  for  the  purpose  of  selling  trees  to  land  owners 
at  cost  price.  The  annual  output  of  the  nursery  is  needed  largely 
to  supply  stock  with  which  to  plant  the  small  tracts  secured  under 
the  reforestation  law. 

Forest  Taxation. 

F.  —  A  commission,  appointed  in  1905,  to  investigate  the 
question  of  forest  taxation  recommended  the  following: 


THE   PROGRESS   OF   FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND        387 

1.  "That  the  value  of  the  land  without  the  crop  be  assessed 
as  cut-over  land;  and  that  the  value  of  the  average  annual  cut 
in  cords,  or  board  measure,  which  the  forest  might  advanta- 
geously bear,  be  assessed  and  added  to  the  value  of  the  land  — 
the  sum  to  be  the  total  assessment." 

2.  "That  the  law  be  restricted  in  its  application  to  woodlands 
which  the  owner  agrees  to  manage  under  a  forest-working  plan, 
which  (i)  fixes  the  average  annual  cut,  (2)  has  been  approved 
by  the  state  forester,  and  (3)  is  subject  to  his  inspection;  that 
the  working  plans  be  revised  at  least  once  in  ten  years,  or  the 
owners  forfeit  their  privileges,  etc." 

Unfortunately  these  recommendations  were  never  passed  by 
the  legislature.  They,  perhaps,  were  not  the  best  that  could  be 
devised,  but  are  certainly  far  ahead  of  any  taxation  scheme  at 
present  in  force  in  any  state  in  the  Union. 

His  Excellency,  Governor  Foss,  in  a  special  message,  urged, 
upon  the  legislature  of  191 1,  the  importance  of  giving  this 
question  prompt  and  serious  consideration.  He  recommended 
a  constitutional  amendment  which  would  enable  the  general 
court  to  enact  such  legislation  relative  to  the  methods  of  taxing 
wild  or  forest  lands  as  will  serve  best  to  encourage  the  develop- 
ment of  forestry  in  the  Commonwealth. 

The  following  resolve,  based  upon  the  Governor's  message, 
was  passed  by  both  branches  of  the  legislature  in  July,  igii. 

Resolved:  That  it  is  expedient  to  alter  the  constitution  of 
the  Commonwealth  by  the  adoption  of  the  subjoined  article  of 
amendment;  and  that  the  said  article,  being  agreed  to  by  a 
majority  of  the  senators  and  two-thirds  of  the  members  of  the 
house  of  representatives  present  and  voting  thereon,  be  entered 
on  the  journals  of  both  houses,  with  the  yeas  and  nays  taken 
thereon,  and  be  referred  to  the  general  court  next  to  be  chosen; 
and  that  the  said  article  be  published,  to  the  end  that  if  agreed 
to  in  the  manner  provided  by  the  constitution,  by  the  general 
court  next  to  be  chosen,  it  may  be  submitted  to  the  people  for 
their  approval  and  ratification,  in  order  that  it  may  become  a 
part  of  the  constitution  of  the  Commonwealth. 


388  FORESTRY   IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

ARTICLE    OF   AMENDMENT. 

Full  power  and  authority  are  hereby  given  and  granted  to  the 
general  court  to  prescribe  for  wild  or  forest  lands  such  methods 
of  taxation  as  will  develop  and  conserve  the  forest  resources  of 
the  commonwealth. 

Control  of  Gipsy  and  Brown-tail  Moths. 

G.  —  The  control  of  the  gipsy  and  brown-tail  moths  was  turned 
over  to  the  forestry  department  in  1909,  and,  as  is  indicated 
under  "Administration,"  by  the  relative  size  of  the  appropria- 
tions, this  work  has  naturally  assumed  greater  proportions  than 
the  regular  forestry  work  of  the  department.  Besides  the  state 
appropriation  of  $315,000,  the  cities  and  towns  spend  on  this 
work  $350,000,  property  owners  pay  as  a  special  tax  between 
$150,000  and  $200,000,  and  there  is  spent  on  state  parks  and 
other  public  lands  nearly  $200,000,  so  that  altogether  nearly 
$1,000,000  a  year  is  spent  in  Massachusetts  in  the  suppression 
of  these  insects.  Of  recent  years  the  United  States  government 
has  cooperated  with  the  state  in  this  work.  The  total  expen- 
ditures in  the  state  from  May,  1905,  to  January,  1910,  were: 
State,  $5,500,000;  United  States,  $417,763.84.  As  stated  under 
"Administration,"  the  moth  work  is  organized  under  fifteen 
divisions.  All  of  the  various  methods  of  suppression  are  used, 
but  binding  the  trees  with  burlap  and  tanglefoot  for  the  gipsy 
moth  is  not  as  much  in  use  as  formerly,  owing  to  the  great 
expense  of  putting  it  on,  and  tending  it.  Spraying  in  residential 
sections  against  both  insects  has  been  confined  mostly  to  wooded 
roadsides,  private  property,  and  small  wooded  areas,  where  the 
infestation  menaced  orchards  or  shade  trees.  Arsenate  of  lead 
has  been  extensively  used,  and  with  great  success. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  hope  of  the  final  control  of  these  disas- 
trous insects  is  by  the  introduction  of  natural  enemies.  Many 
thousands  of  parasitic  insects  have  been  planted  in  various 
localities.  Several  varieties  of  insects  have  been  tried  and  have 
successfully  survived  our  winters.     The  most  promising  varie- 


THE   PROGRESS   OF   FORESTRY  IN  NEW   ENGLAND        389 

ties  have  been  imported  in  vast  numbers  from  Japan  and  from 
Europe.  These  varieties  include  the  Calosoma  beetle,  a  small 
green  beetle,  several  species  of  flies,  and  smaller  insects.  It  is 
confidently  hoped  by  the  experts  that  in  a  few  years  these  para- 
sites will  multiply  and  keep  the  gipsy  and  brown-tail  moths  in 
check,  as  has  been  the  case  in  their  native  habitat. 

Another  form  of  natural  enemy  which  is  giving  much  encour- 
agement to  those  engaged  in  the  work  is  a  fungous  disease, 
Entomophthora,  which  affects  the  caterpillar  of  the  brown  tail, 
and  in  a  few  days  results  in  its  death.  Spores  are  given  off  from 
these  dead  caterpillars,  which  are  blown  about  by  the  wind,  and 
infect  others  so  that  the  disease  spreads  easily.  In  May,  1909, 
another  species  of  Entomophthora,  which  attacks  the  gipsy  moth, 
was  successfully  imported  from  Japan.  There  is  also  a  so- 
called  "  wilt  disease,"  which  attacks  the  larvae  of  the  gipsy  moth. 
Altogether  there  certainly  seems  to  be  abundant  reason  to  hope 
that  these  two  insects,  the  worst  forest  insects  so  far  imported 
into  America,  may  be  soon  controlled,  although  probably  not 
exterminated,  by  natural  enemies. 

Rhode  Island. 

Administration. 

A.  —  The  ofhce  of  Commissioner  of  Forestry  was  created  in 
1906  by  Rhode  Island,  which  was  the  third  state  in  New  England 
to  establish  such  an  office.  The  commissioner  ^  is  appointed  by 
the  governor  for  a  period  of  three  years.  The  appropriation 
available  is  $1500  for  salary  and  expenses. 

Fire  Service. 

B.  —  The  town  council  of  every  town  appoints  a  town  forest 
fire  warden,  and  in  towns  having  over  4000  acres  of  woodland 
two  or  more  district  wardens  are  appointed  in  the  same  way. 
The  town  and  district  wardens  are  paid  thirty  cents  an  hour,  and 
employees  at  fires  eighteen  cents  an  hour,  and  a  minimum  of  five 

^  The  commissioner  of  forestry  is  J.  B.  Mowry  of  Chepachet,  R.  I. 


390  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

hours'  pay  is  allowed  to  all  persons  ofiScially  summoned  to  a  fire. 
All  expenses  incurred  in  extinguishing  fires  are  borne  one-half  by 
the  state  and  one-half  by  the  town.  The  wardens  have  power 
similar  to  those  of  Connecticut  to  summon  aid,  etc. 

During  periods  of  drought  the  town  warden  may  require  the 
district  wardens  to  patrol  their  several  districts  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  town  council.  There  are  in  the  Rhode  Island 
fire  law  two  or  three  provisions  peculiar  to  the  state.  For 
example :  ' '  Whenever  any  two  or  more  adjoining  towns,  having 
an  aggregate  of  8000  or  more  acres  of  woodland,  or  whenever 
any  number  of  forest  owners  whose  woodland  in  any  two  or 
more  adjoining  towns  aggregates  4000  acres,  shall  build  and 
equip  a  lookout  station  and  connect  the  same  with  telephone, 
the  town  fire  warden  is  authorized  to  appoint  a  watchman  who 
is  paid  one-half  by  the  town  and  one-half  by  the  state."  An- 
other clause  provides:  "  In  any  town  having  1000  or  more  acres 
of  woodland  that  the  fire  warden  may  have  three-quarters 
of  the  expense  of  his  telephone  paid  by  the  state."  The  Rhode 
Island  law  also  provides  a  number  of  checks:  for  example,  no 
warden  is  to  be  paid  for  more  than  three  hundred  hours'  services 
in  any  one  year  whatever  the  danger  from  fire.  Employees  are 
not  to  be  paid  for  over  one  hundred  hours  in  a  single  year." 
The  state  is  not  liable  for  an  expenditure  of  over  $300  for  ex- 
tinguishing fires  in  any  one  town.  There  is  also  a  check  clause 
preventing  more  than  two  lookout  stations  in  a  county  from 
drawing  state  money. 

The  Rhode  Island  law  prohibits  the  setting  of  fires  in  the  open 
air  between  March  i  and  December  i,  except  by  written  per- 
mission of  the  town  or  district  forest  warden,  and  except,  further, 
that  debris,  etc.,  may  be  burned  by  the  owner  or  lessee,  agent, 
etc.,  on  land  devoid  of  inflammable  material. 

Educational  Work. 
C— The  Commissioner  of  Forestry  advises  forest  owners,  upon 
request,  in  regard  to  the  management  of  their  forests;  delivers 
addresses  on  forestry,  publishes  bulletins  and  reports,  and  in 


THE   PROGRESS   OF   FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND        39 1 

various  other  ways  stimulates  a  better  interest  in  forest  manage- 
ment throughout  the  state. 

State  Forests. 

D.  —  No  legislation  has  thus  far  been  passed  looking  to  the 

establishment  of  state  forests,  although  the  measure  has  been 

recommended  by  the  Commissioner  of  forestry;  and  there  can  be 

no  doubt  that  state  forests  would  have  great  educational  value. 

Taxation. 

F.  —  Rhode  Island  has  an  ineffective  law  providing  an  exemp- 
tion from  taxes  on  plantations,  similar  to  the  laws  of  several 
other  states.  No  serious  attempt  has  thus  far  been  made  to 
revise  the  general  system  of  taxing  woodlands. 

Control  of  Gipsy  and  Brown-tail  Moths. 

G.  —  The  fighting  of  the  gipsy  and  brown-tail  moths,  both 
of  which  occur  in  Rhode  Island,  is  under  the  direction  of  the 
experiment  station.  Between  May,  1905,  and  January,  1910, 
there  was  expended  in  this  state  on  this  work:  $33,000  ^  by  the 
state  and  $38,000  by  the  United  States. 

Vermont. 

Administration. 

A .  —  The  position  of  state  forester  was  created  by  the  legisla- 
ture of  1908.  The  state  forester  is  appointed  by  a  State  Board 
of  Agriculture  and  Forestry  consisting  of  the  Governor,  the  Di- 
rector of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  and  two  others 
appointed  by  the  Governor,  one  every  two  years.  The  forestry 
department  of  the  state  is  connected  with  the  University  of 
Vermont  through  the  state  forester,'  who  is  professor  of  forestry 
in  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  forester  of  the  experiment  sta- 
tion. The  appropriation  made  by  the  legislature  for  agriculture 
and  forestry  is  divided  according  to  the  needs  of  the  two  de- 

^  See  "  Report  of  the  State  Forester  of  Massachusetts,"  1910. 
2  The  present  state  forester  is  A.  F.  Hawes. 


392 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


partments  by  the  State  Board.     The  forestry  apportionment  for 
the  year  beginning  July  i,  191 1,  was  $11,000. 

Fire  Service. 

B.  —  The  state  forester  is  ex-officio  state  fire  warden.  In  every 
organized  town  of  the  state  the  first  selectman  is  ex-ofhcio  for- 
est fire  warden.  While  this  is  not  as  good  a  system  as  that  of 
Connecticut,  where  the  fire  wardens  are  appointed  especially  for 
their  work,  in  most  cases  it  proves  effective.  The  state  forester 
is  authorized  to  appoint  fire  wardens  in  the  unorganized  towns 
or  gores,  and  to  appoint  district  wardens  in  parts  of  towns  where 
it  is  difficult  for  the  first  selectman  to  act.  Fire  wardens  are  paid 
at  the  rate  of  $2  per  day  for  time  employed  in  performing  the 
duties  of  their  office.  They  have  the  right  to  call  on  all  male 
inhabitants  of  the  town  for  assistance,  who  are  paid  at  the  rate 
of  $1.50  per  day.  Expenses  for  fire  fighting  are  borne  by  the 
town,  but  if  in  any  town  the  expense  exceeds,  in  any  one  year, 
five  per  cent  of  the  grand  Hst,^  the  balance  is  paid  by  the  state, 
upon  approval  of  the  bill  by  the  state  forester.  So  far  as  is 
known,  Vermont  is  the  only  state  which  has  this  kind  of  a  pro- 
vision for  a  division  of  expenditures  and  it  may  be  highly  com- 
mended, since  the  greatest  benefit  accrues  to  the  poorest  towns, 
which  are  usually  those  most  in  need  of  forest  preservation. 

The  county  game  wardens  are  also  ex-ofificio  fire  wardens. 
The  governor  has  authority  to  postpone  the  hunting  season  if 
he  beHeves  that  serious  danger  of  forest  fires  will  result  thereby, 
but  as  the  open  season  on  deer  has  now  been  put  over  into 
November,  there  is  little  likeHhood  of  this  again  being  necessary. 

The  fire  wardens  have  the  authority,  upon  obtaining  consent 
of  the  state  forester,  to  establish  patrols  in  dangerous  locahties. 
The  state  forester  is  authorized  to  pay  the  expenses  of  fire 
wardens  to  local  meetings  to  discuss  matters  pertaining  to 
forestry  and  the  prevention  of  fires. 

*  It  should  be  stated  here  by  way  of  explanation  that  Vermont  has  a  unique 
system  of  taxation,  by  which  the  grand  list  of  a  town  is  one  per  cent  of  the  total 
valuation  of  property  instead  of  the  grand  total  as  in  most  states. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF   FORESTRY  IN   NEW   ENGLAND        393 

Whenever  a  forest  owner  or  group  of  owners  shall  establish 
a  lookout  station  on  the  summit  of  a  hill  or  mountain,  and  con- 
nect the  same  by  telephone  with  some  regular  telephone  line, 
the  state  forester  is  authorized  to  furnish  a  watchman  for  such 
stations,  at  a  salary  not  exceeding  $2  a  day.  Up  to  the  present 
time  only  one  such  station  has  been  established,  namely,  that 
on  the  summit  of  Camel's  Hump,  a  mountain  recently  given  to 
the  state. 

Under  the  provisions  of  the  "Weeks'  Bill,"  Vermont  received 
for  cooperative  lire  protection  $2000  for  the  year  ending  Dec.  31, 
191 1.  With  this  fund,  a  system  of  federal  lire  patrolmen  was 
inaugurated  in  the  most  dangerous  districts  of  the  state.  These 
patrolmen,  who  were  paid  $2  a  day,  were  employed  during  dry 
weather  in  patrolling  railroads  and  other  points  of  danger.  The 
cooperative  agreement  did  not  go  into  effect  until  July  i,  191 1, 
and  was  not  in  good  working  order  until  the  driest  part  of  the 
season  had  passed.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  season,  when 
not  needed  for  patrol,  these  men  were  employed  in  mapping  their 
districts  and  making  trails.  Only  about  one-third  of  Vermont 
has  been  mapped  by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  and 
good  maps  of  many  of  the  worst  fire  districts  are  entirely  lack- 
ing. Town  maps  are  on  file  in  the  offices  of  most  of  the  town 
clerks.  These  maps,  together  with  those  of  the  large  lumber 
companies,  were  corrected  in  the  field,  and  all  reduced  to  a  uni- 
form scale  of  2000  feet  to  the  inch.  In  cooperation  with  the 
Green  Mountain  Club,  the  Forest  Service  is  laying  out  a  system 
of  trails  connecting  the  more  important  mountains  which  can 
serve  as  lookout  stations.  Considerable  trail  construction  was 
started  in  191 1  by  the  patrolmen,  and  will  later  be  continued  on 
an  extensive  scale.  All  trails  are  laid  out  with  an  Abney  level 
on  a  maximum  grade  of  fifteen  per  cent. 

Vermont  suffers  less  from  forest  fires  than  any  other  state  of 
New  England,  partly  because  there  are  few  extensive  unbroken 
coniferous  forests,  partly  because  the  railroads  practically  all 
pass  through  agricultural  valleys  instead  of  forests,  as  in  some 
states,  and  partly  because  the  inhabitants  largely  follow  agri- 


394  FORESTRY  IN  NEW   ENGLAND 

cultural  pursuits.  In  recent  years,  the  most  serious  fire  seasons 
have  been  the  early  summer  of  1903,  the  late  summer  and  fall 
of  1908,  and  May,  June,  and  July  of  191 1. 

Educational  Work. 

C.  —  The  most  important  line  of  forestry  work  in  Vermont 
at  present  is  the  educational  work  which  is  being  carried  on  in 
a  number  of  ways.  The  state  forester  addresses  granges,  clubs, 
and  numerous  organizations,  and  accompanies  the  commissioner 
of  agriculture  on  regular  institute  trips.  Forestry  exhibits  are 
displayed  at  the  agricultural  fairs,  and  on  the  "Better  Farming 
Special "  trains. 

During  the  summer,  the  state  forester,  in  cooperation  with  the 
University,  maintains  a  two  weeks'  school  of  forestry  and  horti- 
culture on  the  "Downer  State  Forest"  in  Sharon.  This  course 
is  open  to  boys  over  sixteen  years  of  age.  The  object  of  the 
school  is  to  teach  the  farm  boys  the  actual  operations  in  forestry 
and  horticulture,  and  much  of  the  time  is  devoted  to  field  work. 

The  University  of  Vermont  at  Burlington  offers  several 
courses  in  forestry  with  the  aims  of  teaching  the  agricultural 
students  enough  forestry  for  their  later  practice  in  farm  man- 
agement, and  of  fitting  students  for  the  professional  forestry 
schools.  During  the  winter's  short  course,  several  forestry  lec- 
tures are  also  given  the  farm  boys  attending. 

The  press  of  Vermont,  including  "The  Vermonter,"  the  state 
magazine,  has  taken  an  active  part  in  furthering  the  develop- 
ment of  forestry,  and  recognizes  that  the  betterment  of  forest 
conditions  is  as  necessary  to  the  welfare  of  the  state  as  good 
roads  and  improved  methods  of  agriculture. 

The  Vermont  Forestry  Association  was  largely  instrumental 
in  starting  the  forestry  movement  in  the  state,  and  still  actively 
assists  in  arousing  interest. 

State  Forests. 

D.  —  While  Vermont  has  not  yet  adopted  any  very  extensive 
policy  of  state  forest  purchase,  it  has  made  a  modest  beginning 


THE   PROGRESS   OF   FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND        395 

in  this  line.  The  small  areas  thus  far  acquired,  whether  by  gifts 
or  by  purchase,  are  chiefly  valuable  for  their  demonstration  possi- 
bilities. Planting  is  the  chief  line  of  work  needed  on  most  of  them, 
and  a  series  of  planting  experiments  have  been  established  on 
the  state  forests  in  Plaintield  and  Sharon.  On  the  latter,  a  small 
nursery  is  also  maintained,  while  in  Plainfield  the  tract  offers 
exceptional  opportunity  for  thinnings,  and  various  silvicultural 
operations. 

The  other  two  tracts  are  Bromley  Mountain  and  Camel's 
Hump,  which  are  most  interesting  on  account  of  their  splendid 
views,  and,  therefore  from  a  forestry  standpoint,  as  lookout 
stations. 

The  total  area  of  state  forests,  January  i,  191 2,  is  as  follows: 

Plainfield 530  acres 

Sharon 300  acres 

Camel's  Hump 1000  acres 

Bromley  Mountain^ •   850  acres 

Total  2680  acres 

1  The  title  of  only  one  hundred  and  six  acres  of  this  land  rests  with  the  state,  although  the 
remainder  has  been  placed  by  deed  permanently  under  the  management  of  the  state  forester. 


State  Nursery. 
E.  —  One  of  the  first  and  most  effective  agencies  for  arousing 
public  interest  in  forestry  was  the  state  nursery,  which  was  estab- 
lished on  a  small  scale  by  the  legislature  of  1906,  and  has  since 
been  considerably  enlarged.  This  is  located  at  Burlington  on 
land  furnished  by  the  University,  with  a  branch  on  the  state 
forest  at  Sharon.  During  the  few  years  that  this  nursery  has 
been  in  operation,  over  one  million  seedlings,  mostly  of  white 
pine,  have  been  sold  at  cost  price,  to  the  land  owners  of  all  parts 
of  the  state. 

Taxation. 
F-  —  The  system  of  forest  taxation  is  the  same  in  Vermont  as 
in  other  parts  of  New  England.     The  only  special  tax  law  relat- 
ing to  forestry  is  one  exempting  plantations  from  taxation  for 


396  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

a  period  of  ten  years.  So  far,  only  two  planters  have  applied 
for  this  exemption.  Most  of  the  plantations  made  were  unin- 
fluenced by  this  law,  and  it  may  be  considered,  therefore,  of 
practically  no  importance  in  bringing  about  forestry  work. 

New  Hampshire. 
A  dministration. 

A.  —  The  forestry  work  in  New  Hampshire  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  an  active  forestry  commission  of  three  members,  and  of 
a  state  forester  ^  appointed  by  this  commission.  The  first  state 
forester  was  appointed  June  22,  1909,  with  an  office  at  the  cap- 
itol  in  Concord.  The  appropriation  available  for  the  forestry 
work  for  the  year  ending  Aug.  31,  191 2,  is  $18,500  made  up  as 
follows:  For  fire  prevention  $5500,  for  reimbursing  towns  for  one- 
half  of  expense  fighting  forest  fires  $4500,  salaries  and  adminis- 
trative expenses  $7700,  nursery  $800. 

Fire  Service. 

B.  — The  state  forester  is  ex-officio  fire  warden,  and  appoints, 
upon  the  recommendation  of  the  selectmen  and  others,  one  fire 
warden,  and  such  deputy  fire  wardens  as  he  deems  necessary  in 
every  town  and  city.  The  state  forester  also  has  the  authority 
to  remove  any  fire  warden  from  office.  In  seasons  of  drought, 
and  when  directed  by  the  state  forester,  the  wardens  are  required 
to  patrol  the  woods,  warn  campers,  hunters,  and  fishermen  of 
the  danger  of  forest  fires,  and  post  notices  of  the  law.  They  also 
have  authority  to  arrest,  without  warrant,  anyone  who  builds  a 
fire  after  receiving  due  warning.  Wherever  he  desires,  the  state 
forester  may  appoint  one  warden  over  a  group  of  towns  or  unin- 
corporated places,  and  for  better  organization  has  divided  the 
state  into  four  forest  districts,  each  under  a  chief  fire  warden. 

The  fire  wardens  are  charged  with  the  duties  of  extinguishing 
all  brush  and  forest  fires,  and  may  summon  assistance.     The 
remuneration  for  services  of  wardens  is  fixed  by  the  forestry 
^  The  present  state  forester  is  Mr.  E.  C.  Hirst. 


THE  PROGRESS   OF   FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND        397 

commission  and  the  state  forester.  The  state  and  town  share 
equally  the  expense  of  fighting  forest  fires.  Permits  must  be 
secured  for  burning  brush  near  woodland  between  April  i  and 
November  i  of  each  year. 

The  state  forester  is  authorized  to  build  and  equip  lookout 
stations  on  the  mountains.  Thirteen  of  these  are  at  present  in 
operation,  and  at  least  five  more  will  be  ready  for  the  spring  fire 
season  of  191 2.  Five  temporary  stations  are  in  operation  during 
dangerous  seasons  in  southern  New  Hampshire.  On  account  of 
the  numerous  high  peaks  in  the  state,  the  views  are  more  broken 
than  in  the  more  rolling  country  of  northern  Maine  with  its 
occasional  high  mountains,  and,  therefore,  less  country  can  be 
protected  from  one  station. 

Although  it  is  no  part  of  the  state  service,  the  work  of  the  New 
Hampshire  Timberland  Owners  Association  should  be  mentioned 
in  this  connection.  This  is  an  association  of  the  large  timber 
owners  of  the  state  on  the  basis  of  a  payment  by  each  of  one  cent 
an  acre  a  year  for  the  land  to  be  protected.  About  1,000,000 
acres  are  thus  represented.  This  association  employs  a  trained 
forester,  who  in  turn  hires  a  large  number  of  patrolmen  in  dry 
seasons.  The  association  also  maintains  suppHes  of  fire-fighting 
tools  at  a  number  of  convenient  points,  ready  for  immediate  use 
in  time  of  emergency. 

New  Hampshire  received  in  191 1  for  fire  prevention,  under 
the  Weeks'  Bill,  v$72oo.  Under  the  cooperative  agreement,  this 
money  was  expended  for  patrol  on  the  forested  areas  of  navigable 
streams.  Twenty-four  patrolmen  were  on  duty  from  June  4 
until  late  in  October.  The  most  important  duties  of  the  patrol- 
men, when  covering  their  routes,  were  putting  out  small  fires, 
warning  persons  they  met  about  fire  danger,  and  recording  the 
names  of  parties  going  into  the  woods.  About  sixty  small  fires, 
caused  by  campers,  fishermen,  or  smokers,  were  put  out  by  the 
patrolmen,  and  their  reports  to  the  district  chiefs  show  that  4200 
warnings  were  given.  The  educational  value  of  the  patrolmen's 
work  in  New  Hampshire  deserves  especial  mention.  The  num- 
ber of  warnings  given  would  indicate  that  many  people  have 


398  FORESTRY  IN  NEW   ENGLAND 

been  restrained  who  otherwise  might  have  caused  fires  through 
carelessness.  Several  of  the  patrolmen  have  reported  larger 
fires  and  rendered  valuable  assistance  in  putting  them  out. 
During  damp  weather  when  there  was  no  danger  from  fire,  the 
federal  patrolmen  were  used  to  good  advantage  on  permanent 
improvement  work,  aiding  in  the  construction  of  six  new  moun- 
tain lookout  stations,  constructed  by  the  New  Hampshire 
Timberland  Owners  Association.  They  also  helped  in  the  con- 
struction of  telephone  lines,  brushed  out  old  trails,  and  cut  new 
ones,  and  rebuilt  old  camps,  and  built  new  camps  for  temporary 
headquarters. 

There  is  a  state  law  requiring  portable  sawmills  to  be  pro- 
vided with  spark  arresters,  and  giving  the  power  of  inspection 
to  the  state  forester. 

Educational  Work. 

C.  —  The  state  forester  takes  an  active  part  in  forestry  edu- 
cation, speaking  before  organizations,  holding  exhibits,  and  in 
various  other  ways  forwarding  the  forestry  work  among  private 
owners,  as  by  the  inspection  of  private  tracts,  and  giving  advice. 
He  is  greatly  aided  in  this  work  by  the  Society  for  the  Protec- 
tion of  New  Hampshire  Forests,  an  organization  which  employs 
a  trained  forester  who  does  a  great  deal  of  lecturing.  It  is 
largely  through  the  efforts  of  this  society  that  the  Weeks'  Bill 
was  passed  by  Congress  and  that  the  position  of  state  forester 
in  New  Hampshire  was  estabhshed.  One  of  the  educational 
measures  taken  by  this  society  has  been  the  creation  of  several 
local  forestry  associations  to  bring  the  forestry  work  nearer  to  the 
people.  The  State  College  of  Agriculture  has  now  engaged  a 
forester,  and  offers  courses  in  farm  forestry,  aiming  especially  to 
bring  about  a  better  management  of  the  woodlands  of  the  farms. 

State  Forests. 

D.  —  There  are  at  present  three  forest  reservations  belonging 
to  the  state.  One  of  these,  the  Monadnock  Reservation,  com- 
prises six  hundred  acres,  and  the  other  two,  the  Haven  Reser- 
vation  at  Jaffrey,  and  the  Walter  Harriman  Reservation  at 


THE   PROGRESS   OF   FORESTRY  IN   NEW   ENGLAND        399 

Warner,  are  smaller  tracts  of  sixty  and  two  hundred  and  ten 
acres  respectively.  The  legislature  of  191 1  provided  for  the  pur- 
chase by  the  state  of  a  tract  of  11,000  acres  in  Crawford  Notch, 
which  will  be  under  the  management  of  the  state  forester.  The 
revenue  received  from  the  sale  of  products  from  the  state  forests 
reverts  to  the  state  treasury. 

State  Nursery. 

E.  —  A  nursery  was  started  by  the  forestry  commission  in 
1 9 10,  there  being  quite  a  demand  for  nursery  stock.  The  leg- 
islature of  191 1  appropriated,  for  the  establishment  and  main- 
tenance of  a  state  nursery  for  191 1,  $500;  for  191 2,  $800;  and 
for  1913,  $300.  One  nursery  is  located  at  Gerrish.  Here  are 
raised  white,  red,  and  Scotch  pine,  Norway  spruce,  European 
larch,  ash,  basswood,  chestnut,  and  red  oak,  with  a  present 
stock  of  about  700,000  seedHngs  and  100,000  transplants  in  all. 
Another  nursery  is  located  at  Pembroke,  and  is  devoted  entirely 
to  white  pine  transplants.  Three  hundred  thousand  seedlings 
and  transplants  have  been  distributed  through  the  ofhce  of  the 
forestry  commission,  since  starting  the  nursery  work  in  19 10. 
Two  private  nurseries  have  recently  been  established  in  New 
Hampshire,  so  there  is  little  question  of  a  sufficient  supply  of 
home  grown  nursery  stock  within  a  few  years. 

Taxation. 

F.  —  The  taxation  problem  in  New  Hampshire  is  much  the 
same  as  in  other  states.  An  investigation  of  the  matter  was 
made  a  few  years  ago  by  the  United  States  Forest  Service  and 
state  in  cooperation. 

Maine. 

Administration. 

A.  —  Maine,  which  has  the  largest  forest  area  of  any  of  the 

New  England  States,  is  the  only  one  which  does  not  employ  a 

trained  state  forester.     It  has,  however,  a  forest  commissioner,^ 

^  The  present  forest  commissioner  is  F.  E.  Mace. 


400  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

who  has  charge  of  the  lire  service,  which  is  perhaps  the  best  in 
New  England. 

Fire  Service. 

B.  —  In  Maine,  since  the  spring  of  1909,  the  organization  for 
fire  protection  has  been  under  the  control  of  the  forest  com- 
missioner. Under  the  law,  passed  by  the  legislature  of  1909, 
the  wild  lands  (virtually  the  spruce  region)  of  Maine  were 
formed  into  an  administrative  district  known  as  the  Maine  For- 
estry District.  A  tax  of  one  and  a  half  mills  on  the  dollar  is 
levied  on  all  property,  in  the  district,  to  be  used  for  protection 
of  the  forests  from  fire.  This  tax  has  made  available  the  sum  of 
$63,945  for  each  of  the  years  1909  and  1910.  The  unexpended 
balance  of  the  tax  in  any  year  continues  available  for  the  pur- 
poses of  the  law.  The  forest  commissioner  is  given  control  with 
ample  powers.  He  has  divided  the  district  into  subdistricts  with 
a  chief  forest  fire  warden  in  each,  who  in  turn  may  have  dep- 
uty forest  fire  wardens.  The  forest  commissioner  is  specifically 
authorized  to  construct  and  maintain  lookout  stations  connected 
with  telephone,  to  patrol  the  woodlands,  when  necessary,  and  to 
equip  and  maintain  depots  of  fire-fighting  tools.  The  chief  fire 
wardens  and  deputy  fire  wardens  can  summon  assistance  of  citi- 
zens, when  necessary,  to  extinguish  fires.  The  law  plainly 
provides  for  the  development  of  a  comprehensive  system  of  pro- 
tection. The  eighth  report  of  the  forest  ^commissioner  of  Maine 
shows  what  has  been  accomplished  during  the  years  1909  and 
1910.  In  the  field  force  are  listed  three  hundred  and  sixty-seven 
men,  thirty-nine  as  chief  wardens,  and  three  hundred  and 
twenty-eight  as  deputy  wardens  and  patrolmen.  Patrol  is 
usually  along  lines  where  traffic  is  passing,  --such,  for  example, 
as  railroad  fines  and  waterways,  frequented  by  river  drivers 
and  sportsmen. 

Twenty-four  lookout  stations  are  in  operation,  located  on 
high  mountains  with  the  widest  possible  outlook.  Some  of 
these  command  a  view  of  from  100,000  to  250,000  acres  of 
timberland. 


THE   PROGRESS   OF   FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND        401 

Outfits  of  fire-fighting  tools,  such  as  axes,  pails,  shovels,  and 
mattocks,  have  been  purchased  and  distributed  through  the 
district  at  convenient  points.  These  tools  are  usually  kept  in 
special  tool  boxes. 

The  average  annual  expenditure,  for  the  years  1909  and  1910, 
for  the  Maine  forestry  district  has  been  $57,838.70,  of  which 
amount  an  average  of  $27,493.80  was  spent  for  patrol.  During 
the  year  191 1,  the  available  funds  were  expended  before  the  end 
of  the  fire  season,  but  disastrous  results  were  fortunately  pre- 
vented by  fall  rains. 

Maine  was  the  first  state  in  the  Union  to  make  use  of  mountain 
lookout  stations  in  fire  protection.  The  first  station  was  estab- 
lished and  maintained  cooperatively  by  the  lumbermen  and  the 
state  on  Squaw  Mountain.  Now  the  system  has  been  adopted 
in  many  parts  of  the  country,  and  can  be  used  to  advantage  in 
all  mountainous  regions. 

Nowhere  else  in  the  country  is  there  a  system  of  fire  protection 
so  completely  and  thoroughly  covering  a  wooded  region  of  equal 
size  as  in  northern  Maine.  The  nearest  approach  to  it  is  found 
in  some  of  the  cooperative  fire-protective  associations  in  the 
northwest,  and  in  the  organization  of  the  forest  service  in  pro- 
tecting the  national  forests. 

Conditions  in  Maine  have  been  especially  favorable  for  the 
development  of  such  a  system.  The  chief  place  among  the 
natural  resources  of  the  state,  which  the  forests  hold,  give  those 
connected  with  the  forest  industries  the  controlling  position  in 
state  politics.  The  majority  of  the  wild  land  owners  have  long 
recognized  the  vital  necessity  of  fire  protection.  Many  of  them 
employed  private  patrols  before  the  present  law  was  passed. 
The  first  private  efforts  at  protection  date  back  more  than  ten 
years,  and  were  the  forerunners  of  the  present  complete  state 
system  of  control.  The  great  advantage  of  placing  the  patrol 
under  state  direction  supported  by  a  tax,  levied  on  all  property 
in  the  Maine  forestry  district,  is  that  all  owners  are  compelled 
to  cooperate  and  pay  their  share.  The  cooperative  associations 
of  lumbermen,  as  organized  in  New  Hampshire  and  elsewhere, 


402  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

do  not  often  succeed  in  getting  all  owners,  large  and  small,  to 
join.  They  are,  therefore,  often  compelled  to  protect  lands  of 
non-members,  owing  to  the  danger  of  fires  spreading  from  these 
lands  to  lands  of  members.  Another  advantage  of  the  Maine 
system  is  that  there  is  no  large  force  of  regular  patrolmen,  but, 
instead,  a  big  force  of  wardens  always  available,  who  can  be 
called  out  to  patrol  at  short  notice,  and  kept  at  work  only  as 
long  as  actually  needed.  This  gives  great  elasticity  to  the  patrol 
system,  and  works  for  economy. 

In  the  organized  towns  of  Maine,  the  selectmen  act  as  fire 
wardens.  One  provision,  which  is  peculiar  to  Maine,  permits 
any  person  whose  property  has  been  injured  by  a  forest  fire  to 
collect  damages  from  the  town  in  which  the  injury  was  caused, 
provided  the  injury  was  caused  "in  consequence  of  the  negli- 
gence or  neglect  of  the  selectmen  in  performing  the  duties 
required  by  the  law." 

Educational  Work. 

C.  —  The  State  University  at  Orono  was  one  of  the  first  in  the 
country  to  offer  instruction  in  forestry,  establishing  a  course  in 
1903.  It  has  developed  a  four-years'  under-graduate  course  in 
forestry,  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  Pennsylvania  State  Col- 
lege, with  the  purpose  of  developing  trained  foresters  in  four 
years  instead  of  six  as  at  graduate  schools.  The  professor  of 
forestry  has  done  some  extension  work  among  the  farmers' 
organizations  of  the  state,  but  no  definite  policy  of  propaganda 
has  yet  been  estabhshed.  There  is  in  the  state  a  forestry 
association. 

State  Forests. 

D.  —  Maine  has  no  state  forests  in  the  sense  of  the  newly  ac- 
quired forests  of  Vermont,  Connecticut,  and  Pennsylvania,  or  of 
the  forest  reservations  of  New  York  and  Wisconsin.  Most  of 
the  immense  forest  territory,  once  owned  by  the  state,  or  by 
Massachusetts  before  Maine  came  into  the  Union  as  a  sep- 
arate state,  has  been  disposed  of,  some  to  pay  off  soldiers  of 
the  early  wars,  some  to  educational  institutions,  but  much  of  it 


THE   PROGRESS   OF   FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND        403 

was  sold  to  lumber  companies  and  other  individuals.  One  thou- 
sand acres  in  every  unorganized  town  was  held  by  the  state 
against  the  day  when  that  town  should  be  settled,  and,  when  a 
town  was  organized,  this  land  was  turned  over  to  the  town  for 
school  purposes.  There  are  still  sixty-nine  of  these  tracts  so 
held  by  the  state  in  as  many  unorganized  towns.  These  lands 
are  under  the  control  of  the  land  commissioner,  and  bring  in 
some  revenue  to  the  state  from  time  to  time  as  timber  is  sold 
from  them. 

Maine  is,  therefore,  fortunate  in  having,  under  state  ownership, 
larger  tracts  of  land  than  any  other  New  England  state,  and  it 
is  very  much  to  be  hoped,  from  the  standpoint  of  forestry,  as 
well  as  from  that  of  the  school  system,  that  some  change  of 
policy  can  be  effected  whereby  such  portions  of  these  tracts  as 
are  true  forest  soils  may  be  permanently  managed  by  the  state 
under  forestry  principles;  the  income  from  each  individual  tract 
to  be  paid  by  the  state  to  the  town  after  it  is  organized,  for  school 
purposes.  Under  such  a  plan  this  land  could  be  managed  to 
produce  a  larger  permanent  income  than  in  any  other  way. 
The  state  would  realize  a  considerable  income  from  the  un- 
organized townships,  and  the  school  systems  in  towns,  hereafter 
organized,  could  rely  definitely  on  a  fairly  steady,  or  increasing 
income.  Such  tracts  would  also  serve  the  educational  and  pro- 
tective purposes  so  valuable  in  state  forests. 

Insects. 
G.  —  Both  the  brown-tail  and  gipsy  moths  are  present  in 
southern  Maine.  The  work  of  exterminating  them  is  under 
the  state  entomologist.  During  the  period  from  May,  1905,  to 
January,  19 10,  there  has  been  expended  on  this  work  by  the 
state,  $95,000,  by  the  United  States,  $50,000. 

II.   Forestry  Practice. 
Lands  Under  State  Ownership. 
A .  —  From  the  foregoing  pages  the  following  summary  of  the 
lands  in  New  England  under  state  ownership  has  been  derived. 


404 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


At  the  time  of  writing  (January,  191 2),  no  national  reserves  have 
been  acquired,  although  it  is  probable  that  such  national  forests 
will  soon  be  established  in  New  Hampshire. 

STATE-OWNED   FORESTS   OF   NEW  ENGLAND. 


State. 

Area  in  acres. 

Maine 

69,000 
900 

2,000 
18,000 

1,500 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

Connecticut 

Total 

91,400 

This  total  of  about  91,000  acres  of  land,  owned  by  the  states 
of  New  England,  forms  less  than  four-tenths  of  one  per  cent  of 
the  forested  area  of  the  six  states,  and  when  it  is  considered  that 
very  little  forestry  is  at  present  practiced  on  the  large  school 
tracts  of  Maine,  or  the  reservations  of  Massachusetts,  it  will  be 
realized  that  they  are  at  present  of  very  little  value  so  far  as  the 
real  practice  of  forestry  throughout  New  England  is  concerned. 
The  New  England  States  should  own  at  least  ten  per  cent  of 
their  total  forest  area,  and  should  manage  these  public  forests 
for  revenue  production,  which  would  also  furnish  the  best 
possible  practical  examples  of  forestry  to  private  owners. 

Lands  Under  Corporate  and  Private  Ownership. 
B.  —  The  large  pulp  concerns  of  northern  New  England  control 
the  largest  areas  of  forest  lands  upon  which  forestry  principles, 
even  of  a  rough  nature,  have  thus  far  been  practiced.  These 
companies,  which  own  expensive  manufacturing  plants,  usually 
located  on  waterpowers  distant  from  the  forests,  are  dependent 
largely  upon  their  own  tracts  for  a  permanent  supply  of  timber, 
and  the  maintenance  of  their  business.  Partly  because  they  have 
often  stripped  land  clean  in  their  past  operations,  and  partly 
because  they  represent  large  capital  in  agricultural  states,  these 
corporations  have  become  very  unpopular.     In  many  cases,  the 


THE   PROGRESS  OF   FORESTRY  IN  NEW   ENGLAND        405 

smaller  lumbermen  have  been  as  much  at  fault  as  the  large  pulp 
concerns,  but  in  a  smaller  and  less  conspicuous  way.  These  two 
factors,  the  necessity  of  a  permanent  supply  of  wood,  and  the 
public  attitude  of  antagonism,  have  led  several  of  the  large  pulp 
companies  to  introduce  some  kinds  of  forestry  measures.  In 
Maine,  these  measures  have  been  largely  confined  to  the  avoiding 
of  waste  in  lumbering  such  as  the  substitution  of  the  saw  for 
the  ax  in  felling,  by  cutting  lower  stumps,  and  higher  into  the 
tops,  by  removing  all  lodged  trees,  and  by  the  use  of  inferior 
material  for  skids  and  corduroys.  In  Vermont  and  New  Hamp- 
shire, silvicultural  measures  are  being  introduced  by  at  least  one 
of  these  companies.^  Some  of  the  lumbering  is  being  done  ac- 
cording to  foresters'  marking  with  special  reference  to  securing 
spruce  reproduction. 

This  same  company  is  building  up  a  large  nursery  for  the  pur- 
pose of  supplying  seedlings  for  the  replanting  of  their  waste  and 
cut-over  lands. 

Very  Httle  has  as  yet  been  done  by  the  large  lumber  companies 
toward  the  introduction  of  forestry  principles  in  their  cuttings. 
Some  have  experimented,  in  a  small  way,  with  planting  and  con- 
servative cutting,  but  so  far  on  a  scale  not  at  all  comparable  to 
their  cutting  operations.  The  fire-protective  organization  of 
New  Hampshire  lumbermen  is  the  most  effective  move  toward 
forestry  thus  far  made  by  New  England  lumbermen. 

As  mentioned  in  the  discussion  of  the  spruce  region,  many  of 
the  large  hotel  companies  of  northern  New  England,  especially 
of  New  Hampshire,  own  the  forests  surrounding  their  hotels, 
and  realize  the  necessity  from  the  aesthetic  standpoint  of  pre- 
serving them.  Some  of  these  companies  are  realizing  the  ad- 
visabiHty  of  practicing  forestry  on  these  lands,  and  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  they  will  all  be  maintained  in  a  productive  condition, 
and  not  merely  as  pleasure  tracts.  The  well-managed  forests 
of  Europe  furnish  abundant  proof  that  good  management  not 
only  does  not  detract  from  the  beauty  of  a  forest,  but  rather  en- 
hances it,  and  makes  it  available  to  a  greater  number  of  people. 

'  The  International  Paper  Co. 


4o6  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

In  southern  New  England,  the  most  extensive  forestry  work 
is  being  done  by  the  various  water  companies,  many  of  which 
own  large  forest  areas  for  the  protection  of  their  water  suppHes 
from  contamination.  The  practice  of  forestry  not  only  main- 
tains these  lands  in  a  condition  for  retaining  the  water  in  the 
soil,  but  makes  possible  an  annual  income,  from  the  watersheds, 
which  would  otherwise  have  to  be  administered  at  an  expense. 
The  lands  owned  by  these  companies  are  largely  made  up  of 
farms,  which  have  been  purchased  to  do  away  with  undesirable 
drainage.  Much  of  the  land  is,  therefore,  of  good  agricultural 
value,  but  cannot  be  used  for  farming  because  it  cannot  be 
fertilized.  Such  lands  are,  therefore,  being  afforested,  and,  on 
account  of  their  fine  quaHty,  should  become  some  of  the  most 
productive  forest  lands  in  New  England.  Woodlands,  already 
existing,  are  being  thinned,  and  in  some  cases  whole  tracts  are 
being  managed  after  a  detailed  working  plan,  very  much  like 
those  prepared  for  some  European  forests.  In  fact,  the  forestry 
being  carried  on  upon  such  lands  is  probably  the  most  intensive 
form  at  present  in  use  on  any  considerable  areas  in  New  England. 

Many  public  institutions,  such  as  hospitals,  schools,  and  col- 
leges, own  forest  tracts  varying  in  size  from  a  few  acres  up  to 
the  large  college  grants  of  several  thousand  acres.  A  number 
of  such  tracts  are  now  being  managed  upon  forestry  principles 
with  a  view  to  a  permanent  and  increasing  income.  Probably 
the  most  extensive  area  of  this  kind  is  the  Dartmouth  College 
Grant  in  northern  New  Hampshire. 

A  class  of  land  owners  which  is  growing  very  rapidly,  especially 
in  southern  New  England,  is  composed  of  city  people  who  have 
purchased  summer  homes  in  the  country.  With  the  develop- 
ment of  good  roads  and  the  use  of  automobiles  an  ever-increasing 
number  of  these  people  are  making  their  permanent  homes  in 
the  country.  They  have  found  by  experience  that  dairying  and 
most  other  forms  of  farming  cannot  be  practiced  profitably 
through  the  employment  of  expensive  help,  and  that  country 
life  can  usually  be  enjoyed  with  the  minimum  expenditure  of 
money  and  worry  on  lands  largely  devoted  to  forests.     The 


THE  PROGRESS  OF   FORESTRY  IN  NEW   ENGLAND         407 

practice  of  forestry  gives  to  such  owners  a  form  of  work  which 
they  can  often  supervise  themselves,  and  which  gives  them  a 
more  intimate  knowledge  of  the  various  parts  of  their  estates 
than  they  would  otherwise  have.  Many  owners  of  this  class, 
especially  in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut,  have  planted  large 
tracts  of  waste  lands,  and  are  systematically  thinning  their 
woodlands. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  forest  land  of  New  England  is  still 
owned  by  the  farmers  and  lumbermen,  who  are  for  the  most  part 
mismanaging  it,  much  as  they  always  have,  for  only  a  few  of 
these  owners  are  here  and  there  planting  or  making  forestry  cut- 
tings. One  cannot  fail  to  realize,  however,  that  the  past  few 
years  have  seen  a  considerable  change  in  the  general  attitude  of 
these  owners.  They  are  apt  to  think  twice  before  they  clean  the 
evergreens  off  an  old  pasture,  and  they  cut  their  winter's  wood 
supply  in  many  cases  more  or  less  after  a  crude  selection  system. 
In  these  and  various  other  measures  there  is  an  indication  that 
forestry  is  to  be  gradually  adopted  by  many  people,  who  will 
never  realize  that  they  have  changed  their  methods. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  form  any  estimate  of  the  total  area  in 
New  England  at  present  under  forest  management,  especially 
because  there  is  no  well-defined  line  between  old-time  manage- 
ment and  the  crude  forestry  measures  which  in  many  cases  are 
little  more  than  the  expression  of  a  desire  for  better  management. 
If  management  with  the  aim  of  permanent  profit  rather  than 
for  present  gain  alone  is  the  line  of  distinction,  it  is  estimated 
that  five  per  cent  of  the  forested  lands  of  New  England  are  so 
managed  at  present.  If,  however,  the  application  of  the  term 
"Practice  of  Forestry"  is  restricted  to  lands  upon  which  cultural 
operations  are  actually  being  practiced,  it  is  doubtful  if  even  one 
per  cent  of  the  entire  wooded  area  could  be  classed  as  under 
forest  management. 

In  the  future  it  is  probable  that  less  forest  land  will  be  owned 
by  farmers  and  lumbermen,  and  more  by  the  governments, 
state  and  national,  by  large  estates,  and  by  companies  formed 
with  the  express  purpose  of  practicing  forestry. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE  YIELD   TO  BE  EXPECTED   FROM   NEW  ENGLAND   FORESTS 
UNDER  PROPER  MANAGEMENT. 

The  previous  chapters  have  brought  out  the  fact  that  New 
England  has  large  areas  of  waste  land  suitable  for  forest  growth 
but  now  bare,  and  has  even  greater  areas  of  forest  land,  only 
partially  stocked  or  occupied  by  slow-growing  species  or  those 
of  inferior  value  for  which  trees  of  higher  value  and  faster 
growth  could  be  substituted  advantageously.  Reckless  cutting, 
forest  fires,  and  the  grazing  of  stock  are  largely  responsible  for 
the  deplorably  bad  silvicultural  conditions  of  many  stands.  The 
woodlands  of  New  England  on  which  forestry  actually  is  prac- 
ticed are,  as  explained  in  Chapter  XVII,  insignificant  in  amount 
compared  to  the  total  forest  area. 

For  these  reasons  it  follows  naturally  that  the  present  annual 
growth  must  fall  far  below  what  the  forest  lands  of  New  Eng- 
land are  able  to  produce.  The  object  of  this  chapter  is  to  com- 
pare present  annual  growth  with  what  may  be  expected  from 
the  same  territory  when  the  forests  are  placed  under  scientific 
management. 

Estimating  the  annual  growth  for  the  forests  of  New  England 
is,  in  the  present  state  of  knowledge,  no  easy  task,  and  all  that 
can  be  done  is  to  obtain  an  approximation  to  the  truth.  In 
Circular  No.  159,  entitled,  "The  Future  Use  of  Land  in  the 
United  States,"  the  United  States  Forest  Service  estimates  the 
annual  growth  per  acre  for  the  forests  of  the  United  States  at 
twelve  cubic  feet.^     This  average  for  the  whole  country  is  be- 

^  Cubic  feet  are  chosen  as  the  unit  for  this  discussion  because  it  more  accurately 
expresses  the  entire  growth  of  a  forest  than  do  other  units,  especially  board  feet, 
in  which  unit  there  is  oftentimes  no  growth  over  extensive  areas. 

408 


YIELD   TO   BE   EXPECTED   FROM   NEW   ENGLAND   FORESTS      409 

lieved  to  be  altogether  too  low  for  New  England,  since  the  forested 
lands  are  better  stocked,  the  soils  are  of  a  greater  productive 
power,  and  the  forests  contain  large  areas  of  second-growth 
stands  (ordinarily  more  productive  in  a  given  time  than  virgin 
stands).  It  will  be  safer  to  place  the  annual  growth  per  acre  of 
the  forested  area  of  New  England  at  thirty  cubic  feet,  and  apply- 
ing this  figure  to  the  area  forested  gives  about  757,000,000  cubic 
feet  as  the  total  annual  growth. 

This  growth,  however,  is  more  than  offset  by  the  annual  cut 
for  lumber,  pulpwood,  ties,  poles,  cordwood,  etc.,  which  is  esti- 
mated to  reach  850,000,000  cubic  feet.  There  is  not  such  a 
large  discrepancy  between  annual  cut  and  annual  growth  as 
exists  in  many  other  sections  of  the  country;  the  growth  in  some 
cases  being  far  below  the  annual  cut  and  in  a  few  regions  greater 
than  the  cut.  The  ideal  arrangement  is  to  have  the  yearly 
growth  equal  the  amount  cut,  or  slightly  exceed  the  latter, 
since  then  it  is  usually  possible  to  continue  the  annual  cut 
indefinitely^  without  fear  of  exhausting  the  supply. 

As  the  annual  cut  of  the  New  England  forests  is  only  about 
12  per  cent  greater  than  the  growth  there  would  appear  to  be 
no  immediate  danger  of  the  local  wood  supply  being  exhausted; 
although  the  quality  of  the  timber  cut  is  deteriorating  from  year 
to  year,  the  bulk  of  the  present  cut  coming  from  second-growth 
stands  or  from  lands  already  culled  of  the  highest  grade  material. 

Moreover,  while  the  annual  growth  is  nearly  as  large  as  the 
cut,  yet  in  quality  it  is  much  poorer  than  the  latter.  The 
abundance  of  inferior  species  and  the  partial  stocking  of  many 
areas  (resulting  in  the  production  of  knotty  trees)  are  the  prin- 
cipal causes  for  the  poor  quality  of  the  annual  growth.  Thus  with 
the  decreasing  quahty  of  the  cut,  and  of  the  growth,  the  pro- 
ductive power  of  the  forest  lands  must  fall  off;  if  not  in  amount, 
certainly  in  grade  of  product.  This  is  unnecessary  and  should 
not  be  allowed  to  continue  as  under  scientific  management  of 

1  Even  though  the  growth  is  equal  to  the  amount  cut  the  latter  cannot  be 
indefinitely  maintained  unless  the  forests  are  fully  stocked  and  unless  stands  of 
young,  middle-aged,  and  old  timber  are  found  occupying  fairly  equal  areas. 


4IO 


FORESTRY  IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


the  forests  the  quahty  of  the  wood  produced  and  the  actual 
amount  annually  grown  can  be  greatly  improved  over  present 
conditions. 

In  order  to  learn  what  results  in  the  way  of  increased  growth 
and  better  wood  production  may  be  secured  through  forestry, 
it  is  necessary  to  turn  to  the  countries  where  forestry  has  been 
in  practice  for  considerable  periods  of  time,  and  where  accurate 
records  of  the  results  are  kept.  No  tracts  in  New  England  have 
been  under  treatment  long  enough  to  furnish  the  desired  infor- 
mation. Certain  of  the  European  countries  provide  the  best 
illustrations  for  our  purpose,  and  in  the  following  table  the  aver- 
age annual  growth  per  acre  is  given,  together  with  the  forested 
area  on  which  based,  for  several  countries. 

ANNUAL  GROWTH  PER  ACRE  IN  CUBIC  FEET,  TOGETHER  WITH 
THE  FORESTED  AREA  FOR  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES.i 


Country. 


Austria.  .  .  . 
Belgium. . . . 
France .... 
Germany.  . 
Holland.  .  . 
Hungary.  .  . 
Switzerland 


Forested  area.    Annual  growth, 
cubic  feet. 


23,996,266 
1.303.735 

24,021,587 

34,989,675 
617,567 

18,692,000 
2,140,012 


'  The  figures  are  taken  from  Bulletin  No.  83  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  entitled  "  The  Forest 
Resources  of  the  World." 


The  annual  growth  per  acre  is  seen  to  range  from  37.9  to  58.2 
cubic  feet.  It  should  be  remembered  that  in  these  European 
countries  the  classification  of  lands  into  those  suitable  for  agri- 
cultural and  forest  use  is  farther  advanced  than  in  New  England, 
and  that  while  in  the  latter  region  some  soils  suitable  for  agri- 
culture are  still  forested,  this  rarely  occurs  in  the  European 
countries,  where  only  the  poorest  grade  soils  are  forested. 
Hence  the  forested  areas  of  the  European  countries  may  be 
expected  to  have  a  somewhat  lower  productive  power  than  those 
of  New  England.     Some  of  the  countries  with  the  poorest  and 


YIELD   TO   BE   EXPECTED   FROM   NEW   ENGLAND    FORESTS      411 


shallowest  soils  show  the  best  growth,  —  see  Switzerland/  for 
example,  with  its  annual  growth  of  lifty-one  cubic  feet  —  ren- 
dered possible  only  by  the  best  management. 

The  forest  soils  of  New  England  certainly  are  capable  of  pro- 
ducing as  much  per  acre  as  those  of  Switzerland  or  Germany, 
or  in  round  numbers  fifty  cubic  feet  per  acre  annually.  Such  an 
annual  growth  can  only  be  secured  after  years  of  forestry  work, 
though  a  gradual  increase  over  the  present  growth  should  begin 
soon  after  proper  treatment  is  started. 

While  for  the  entire  forested  area  of  New  England  an  annual 
growth  of  fifty  cubic  feet  per  acre  may  be  considered  as  fairly 
representing  the  possibilities,  yet  on  small  portions  a  much 
higher  annual  growth  can  be  secured.  Instances  are  frequent 
in  European  practice  of  relatively  small  tracts  annually  produc- 
ing from  seventy-five  to  over  one  hundred  cubic  feet  per  acre. 
Such  a  production  indicates  either  that  the  soil  is  of  good  quahty 
or  that  the  forest  is  stocked  with  fast-growing  species. 

The  difference  between  stands  of  fast-growing  and  slow- 
growing  species  and  the  effect  of  quality  of  the  soil  on  produc- 
tion is  shown  clearly  by  the  following  comparison  between  stands 
of  oak  and  spruce  grown  in  Saxony  on  five  qualities  of  soil. 

YIELD  PER  ACRE  IN  CUBIC  FEET  AT  100  YEARS  FOR  FULLY 
STOCKED  STANDS  OF  OAK  AND  SPRUCE  IN  SAXONY. 


Quality  classes. 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

v 

Oak: 

6960. 
69.6 

14,910. 
149-1 

5660. 
56.6 

11,520. 
115. 2 

Cubic  feet. 

4360. 
43-6 

8130. 
81.3 

3070. 
30-7 

4730. 
47-3 

1520. 
152 

1900. 
19.0 

Mean  annual  growth.. . 
Spruce: 

Yield  per  acre 

Mean  annual  growth. .. 

This  table  indicates,  for  example,  that  a  forest  of  oak  would 
produce  on  quahty  I  soil,  69.6  cubic  feet  per  acre  annually,  in 

1  The  soils  of  Switzerland  are  probably  not  as  sandy  or  infertile  as  those  of  some 
other  regions,  but  on  account  of  their  elevation  and  shallowness  are  often  inferior. 


412 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW   ENGLAND 


contrast  to  149.  i  cubic  feet  for  spruce,  or  comparing  stands  of 
two  qualities  having  the  same  species,  that  spruce  on  quahty  I 
annually  produces  149.  i  cubic  feet  per  acre,  but  on  quahty  V 
only  19.0  cubic  feet. 

Second-growth  white  pine  stands  in  New  England  furnish  a 
good  illustration  of  large  annual  production.  Taking  the  data 
from  the  Yield  Table  for  white  pine  in  "  The  Forest  Mensuration 
of  the  White  Pine  in  Massachusetts,"  for  stands  fifty-five  years 
old,  gives  the  following  result: 

YIELD  PER  ACRE  OF  WHITE  PINE  STANDS  IN  MASSACHUSETTS  ^ 
AT  55  YEARS,  IN  CUBIC  FEET. 


Quality  Classes. 


Yield  per  acre 

Mean  annual  growth . 


8575 
156 


7200 
131 


Cubic  feet. 

6015 

109 


1  It  should  be  understood  that  these  figures  are  for  unmanaged  forests,  while  the  European 
figures  are  for  forests  which  have  always  been  well  managed. 


It  is  easily  within  the  possibilities  throughout  much  of  New 
England  to  develop  forests  of  white  pine  and  other  fast-growing 
species  which  will  produce  annually  100  or  more  cubic  feet  per 
acre,  and  an  average  growth  of  50  cubic  feet  is  thought  to  be  a 
very  conservative  figure  of  what  may  be  accomphshed  through 
forestry. 

The  average  quality  of  the  product  will  be  greatly  increased, 
as  one  of  the  main  objects  of  forestry  is  to  grow  the  better  grades 
at  the  expense  of  inferior  material.  Low-grade -material,  such 
as  cord  wood,  must  always  form  an  important  part  of  the  yield, 
either  as  material  which  is  sold,  or  in  undeveloped  regions  as 
material  which  must  be  left  in  the  forest  and  wasted.  But 
whereas  in  an  uncared-for  forest  perhaps  60  per  cent  of  the 
volume  may  be  low-grade  material,  ultimately  the  same  forest 
may  be  so  managed  that  possibly  only  40  per  cent  of  the  output 
is  of  poor  quahty.     The  results  of  management  in  Europe  show 


YIELD   TO   BE    EXPECTED    FROM   NEW   ENGLAND    FORESTS      413 

that  a  steadily  rising  percentage  of  the  better  qualities  may  be 
expected  in  the  yield.  For  example,  the  "workwood  per  cent," 
as  the  percentage  of  the  annual  cut  suitable  for  higher  grade 
products  is  temied,  increased  in  the  state  forests  of  Baden 
from  30  per  cent  in  1878  to  40  per  cent  in  1904,  and  in  the 
state  forests  of  Prussia  rose  from  47  per  cent  in  1890  to  63  per 
cent  in  1907.  A  comparison  of  present  financial  returns  from 
New  England's  forests  with  those  received  from  forests  abroad 
is  instructive  and  indicates  what  opportunity  there  is  for 
improvement.  Based  on  statistics  for  1909,  the  annual  gross 
value  of  forest  products  cut  in  New  England  is  estimated  at 
$85,000,000.  A  large  share  of  this  value,  however,  is  consumed 
by  the  expenses  of  manufacturing  and  bringing  the  material  to 
market,  so  that  the  net  value,  or  value  standing  in  the  forest, 
of  the  annual  cut  falls  to  approximately  $20,000,000.  From 
this  net  value  there  must  still  be  deducted  such  items  as  the 
cost  of  administering  the  forest  lands,  of  protection  and  taxes. 
These  various  charges  are  estimated  to  equal  $5,000,000  a  year, 
leaving  $15,000,000  as  the  annual  net  returns  from  a  forested 
area  of  25,238,458  acres,  or  $0.59  per  acre  per  year.  This  return 
would  be  less  were  it  not  that  the  annual  cut  exceeds  the  growth 
at  the  present  time. 

Figures  of  net  return  per  acre  vary  widely  in  the  different 
European  countries,  and  of  course  vary  from  year  to  year  in  the 
same  country,  but  the  tendency  year  by  year  is  towards  higher 
net  returns,  although  the  cost  of  management  is  constantly 
rising. 

Single  private  or  communal  forests  of  relatively  small  areas 
often  yield  annual  net  returns  of  from  $8  to  over  $15  per  acre, 
while  instances  of  even  higher  yields  are  on  record.^ 

From  the  values  in  the  preceding  table  it  can  easily  be  seen 
that  the  present  net  return  per  acre  of  the  New  England  forests 
is  very  low.     Results,  fully  as  good  as  those  in  Europe,  can  be 

^  See  "Forestry  Quarterly,"  Vol.  VII,  p.  471,  where  a  private  tract  of  six 
thousand  acres  in  Suabia,  composed  92  per  cent  of  spruce  (a  very  profitable  species), 
is  mentioned  giving  an  annual  net  return  of  $17.47  per  acre. 


414 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


secured  here,  of  from  $1.50  to  $5  per  acre  for  the  large  forest 
areas,  and  much  higher  returns  on  exceptionally  situated  and 
intensively  managed  forests;  but  of  course  it  will  take  time. 
Forestry  has  been  practiced  in  the  countries  from  which  these 
figures  have  been  taken  for  fifty  to  one  hundred  years,  and 
the  net  returns  increased  from  little  or  nothing  to  the  present 
amounts. 

The  following  table  shows  the  net  annual  income  from  forested 
areas  in  several  European  countries: 


Country. 

Forested  area, 
acres. 

Net  returns 
per  acre.i 

For  year. 

Remarks. 

Switzerland 

(TheSihlwald).... 

2,560 

$7.69 

1907 

Chiefly  beech  under 
management  since 
1802. 

Wurtemburg 

(State  forests) 

468,790 

6.74 

1906 

Belgium 

(State  forests).  .  .  . 

62,600 

4. 16 

1906 

Hesse 

(Crown  forests) .  .  . 

166,215 

4.00 

1902 

Bavaria 

(State  forests) 

2,088,592 

3-5° 

1909 

Prussia 

(State  forests) 

6,396,172 

2.52= 

1907 

Much  of  the  forest 
is  on  very  poor 
soil. 

Austria 

(State  forests) 

2,573,000 

.80 

1911 

Forestry  poorly  de- 
veloped compared 
with  the  other 
states  listed. 

1  Usually  the  larger  the  area  of  a  country  the  smaller  are  the  net  returns  per  acre. 

2  The  Prussian  state  forests  have  increased  their  net  return  per  acre  from  $1.36  in  1890  to  $2.52 
in  1907. 


High  returns  per  acre  from  the  business  of  forestry  can  only 
be  secured  by  intensive  management  requiring  large  annual  ex- 
penditures. For  example,  the  state  forests  of  Bavaria  in  1909 
gave  gross  returns  of  $6.11  per  acre  of  which  $2.61  were  taken 
by  expenditures,  leaving  $3.50  per  acre  as  the  net  return.  In  the 
Prussian  state  forests  the  same  year,  gross  returns  amounted  to 


YIELD   TO    BE   EXPECTED    FROM    NEW    ENGLAND    FORESTS       415 

$4.35  per  acre,  expenditures  totaled  $2.41,  or  considerably  more 
than  the  net  return  of  $1.94  per  acre. 

In  conclusion,  what  may  be  expected  of  forestry  as  an  invest- 
ment? It  offers  the  only  method  of  making  profitable  large 
areas  of  land  in  New  England,  but  even  thus  it  may  not  neces- 
sarily offer  a  highly  tempting  field  for  investment  for  the  average 
landowner.  Briefly,  the  growing  of  timber  crops  in  New  England, 
as  a  business,  may  be  expected  to  pay  from  3  to  6  per  cent  on 
the  investment,  depending  on  a  variety  of  factors,  among 
which  the  following  three  are  especially  important,  the  quality 
of  the  soil,  species  grown,  and  the  location  of  the  tract  with 
reference  to  markets.  Forestry  is  not  a  business  paying  high 
dividends  and,  if  judged  by  the  dividends  paid,  must  be  classed 
with  investments  affording  good  security  to  the  principal  in- 
vested. Hence  if  it  is  to  attract  private  capital  it  must  offer 
good  security  for  the  principal  invested. 

Until  recently  the  practice  of  forestry  in  New  England  has 
not  offered  a  secure  investment  at  all  comparable  with  a  good 
4  per  cent  bond,  owing  principally  to  the  great  danger  from 
forest  fires,^  but  public  sentiment  for  protection  of  the  forests 
from  fire  has  crystallized  within  the  last  few  years  and  taken 
shape  in  the  form  of  action  by  the  state  authorities  with  the 
cooperation  of  the  Federal  Government  to  insure  better  protec- 
tion. Already  much  has  been  accomplished  to  lessen  the  fire 
hazard,  and  it  is  believed  that  now  protection  for  a  given  tract 
can  be  assured  at  reasonable  expense. 

With  protection  assured,  and  with  productive  soils,  valuable, 
fast-growing  species  of  trees  suited  to  the  soils  and  excellent 
markets,  there  is  no  reason  why  growing  timber  crops  in  New 
England  should  not  be  considered  as  a  secure  investment. 

When  once  a  tract  is  brought  into  proper  condition,  steady 
returns  are  received  annually,  but  owing  to  the  length  of  time 
and  the  investment  involved  in  waiting  for  this  condition  to  be 

1  The  probability  under  present  methods  of  taxing  forest  lands,  of  being 
compelled  to  pay  excessively  high  taxes  is  another  drawback  to  the  practice  of 
forestry. 


41 6  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

attained  as  well  as  the  low  rate  of  interest  many  private  owners 
will  undoubtedly  be  unable  to  practice  forestry.  To  the  state, 
municipalities,  and  to  corporations  with  ample  funds  and  a  per- 
manent existence,  forestry  offers  an  excellent  investment. 

To  all  owners  of  non-agricultural  lands  it  offers  the  oppor- 
tunity of  obtaining  the  greatest  permanent  profits  from  such 
lands. 


APPENDIX. 

FOREST   FIRE    STATISTICS. 

The  statistics  given  here  have  been  compiled  from  the  reports 
of  the  state  forestry  departments  of  the  six  New  England  states. 
As  these  reports  are  for  states  and  not  for  forest  regions  it  has 
been  necessary  to  combine  figures  from  several  states  in  order 
to  obtain  totals  for  the  four  regions.  The  reports  are  not  full 
enough  in  some  instances,  and  often  do  not  cover  enough  years 
for  a  fair  average  and  are  not  arranged  with  sufficient  uni- 
formity to  give  this  compilation  complete  accuracy.  However, 
it  is  believed  that  the  tables  faithfully  picture  conditions  in  the 
four  forest  regions,  and  in  acreage  burned  over,  damage  done, 
and  cost  of  protection  are  conservative. 

The  total  annual  loss  from  forest  fires  in  New  England  is 
nearly  $1,000,000,  which,  as  shown  in  Table  I,  is  composed  of 
three  items: 

First.   Damage  as  ordinarily  reported. 

Second.    Cost  of  protection  (including  fighting  fires). 

Third.   Damage  not  ordinarily  reported. 

The  amount  of  the  first  represents  the  damage  as  given  in  by 
the  fire  wardens  and  patrolmen,  and  is  mainly  to  merchantable 
material.  Very  rarely  is  damage  to  unmerchantable  material 
properly  estimated  and  reported.  Where  trees  nearly  of  mer- 
chantable size  are  injured  the  damage  to  them  is  sometimes 
reported,  but  more  often  even  this  is  omitted. 

Damage  not  ordinarily  reported  consists  of  injury  to  young 
growth,  ranging  from  trees  a  Httle  under  the  merchantable 
size  to  small  seedlings  or  "reproduction"  as  these  small  plants 
are  collectively  termed.  In'ury  to  the  soil  and  to  seed-bed  con- 
ditions is  also  included  in  unreported  damage.  Fire  injury  to 
the  soil  has  been  previously  described  in  Chapter  VIII.     Fre- 


4t8 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


quently  fire  results  in  an  entire  change  of  seed-bed  conditions. 
Usually  these  changes  result  in  the  seeding  in  of  a  less  desirable 
tree.  The  damage  caused  by  such  a  change  in  the  composition 
of  the  stand  must  be  charged  against  the  fire. 


TABLE   L 


FOREST   FIRE  LOSSES  FOR  AN  AVERAGE  YEAR  IN 
NEW   ENGLAND. 


Region. 


Area  annu- 
ally burned 
over,  acres. 


Damage '  as 
ordinarily 
reported. 


Damage - 
not  ordi- 
narily 
reported. 


Cost  of 
protection 
and  fight- 
ing fires. 


Total '  ex- 
penditure 
or  loss  due 
to  forest 
fires. 


Spruce  ^ 

Northern  hardwoods ''. 

White  pine' 

Sprout  hardwoods*..  .  . 

All  New  England 


40,000 

3,600 

66,500 

48,500 


$150,000 

8,000 

315,000 

181,000 


$75,000 

7,000 

100,000 

50,000 


$60,000 " 

3>500 

32,500 

9,000 


$285,000 

18,500 

447-500 

240,000 


:  58, 600 


$654,000 


$232,000 


[05,000 


$991,000 


'  Based  on  reports  of  the  local  forest  fire  wardens  and  patrolmen. 

2  Includes  injury  to  reproduction,  to  young  growth,  to  soil  and  seed-bed  conditions. 

3  Secured  by  adding  together  the  amounts  in  the  three  preceding  columns. 

*  Based  chiefly  on  the  seventh  and  eighth  annual  reports  of  the  Forest  Commissioner  of  Maine, 
giving  data  for  the  years  1907,  1908,  1909,  and  1910.  While  the  reports  of  the  Vermont  and  New 
Hampshire  state  foresters  have  been  consulted  the  data  in  these  last  two  states  does  not  cover  so 
many  years. 

s  The  basis  for  this  estimate  is  the  average  annual  expenditure  for  1909  and  1910,  by  the  State 
of  Maine  within  the  territory  of  the  spruce  region. 

8  For  an  average  year,  based  on  available  figures  for  the  years  1907-8,  1909-10. 

'  Based  on  averages  for  from  two  to  four  fire  seasons. 

8  This  estimate  is  based  on  the  report  of  the  State  Forester  of  Connecticut  for  1910,  printed  in 
the  Biennial  Report  of  the  Conn.  Agri.  Exp.  Station,  for  1909-1910,  and  on  the  Fifth  Annual  Report 
of  the  Rhode  Island  Commissioner  of  Forestry. 


TABLE 


II.     COMPARISON  BETWEEN  REGIONS  IN  THE  AMOUNT 
SPENT   FOR  FIRE   PROTECTION. 


Region. 

Per  cent  of  the 
forested  area  an- 
nually burned. 

Cost  of  protec- 
tion (including 
fighting  fires) 
per  acre  pro- 
tected. 

Per  cent  of  total 
value  of  forest 
lands  spent 
annually  for  pro- 
tection. 

Forested  area 
valued  at.i 

.0026 
.0010 
.0140 
.0356 

.ooiS^ 

$.0038 
.0010 
.0067 
.0066 

.0170" 

A  of  1% 

A  of  1% 
A  of  1% 
A  of  1% 

$4  per  acre  ^ 

Northern  hardwoods.  . 
White  pine              

6  per  acre 
8  per  acre 

Sprout  hardwoods 

United  States  National 
Forests 

10  per  acre 

1  These  values  are  the  ones  used  in  getting  the  figures  in  the  preceding  column  and  are  believed 
to  be  extremely  conservative  especially  for  central  and  southern  New  England. 

2  Based  on  the  value  of  the  wild  lands  of  Maine,  as  assessed  for  the  year  1906. 
'  Season  1909. 

*  Average  for  1909  and  1910.      This  is  really  the  cost  of  administrating  the   National  Forests 
and  includes  cost  of  protection. 


APPENDIX  419 

Probably  the  most  noticeable  thing  in  Table  I  is  the  small 
area  burned  over  and  the  low  damage  in  the  northern  hard- 
woods region  as  compared  to  the  other  three  regions.  This  is 
more  accurately  shown  in  Table  II.  From  this  table  it  is  seen 
that  in  the  northern  hardwoods  region  only  .001  of  the  forested 
area  is  annually  burned  over  as  against  .0026,  .014  and  .0356 
respectively  in  the  spruce,  white  pine,  and  sprout  hardwoods 
region.  It  is  all  the  more  striking  since  less  money  per  acre 
protected  is  spent  here  than  in  any  of  the  other  regions.  The 
northern  hardwoods  region  is  naturally  comparatively  immune 
from  forest  fires,  as  has  been  explained  in  discussing  the  forest 
fire  situation  there. 

The  tables  clearly  show  that  the  well-settled  regions  have  a 
more  serious  fire  problem  than  the  unsettled  regions.  Compare 
the  per  cent  burned  over  and  cost  of  protection  for  the  spruce 
and  sprout  hardwoods  region,  and  compare  the  latter  with  the 
United  States  National  forests  where  only  .0018  of  the  forested 
area  was  burned  over  in  1909. 

The  amount  of  money  spent  annually  for  fire  protection  (in- 
cluding fighting  fires)  should  be  looked  upon  as  an  insurance 
premium  paid  for  the  protection  of  the  forest.  To  show  the 
rate  of  premium  now  paid,  column  4  of  Table  II  gives  the  per 
cent  of  the  total  value  of  the  forest  lands  spent  annually  for  fire 
protection.  This  ranges  annually  from  one-fiftieth  of  one  per 
cent  in  the  northern  hardwoods  region  to  one-tenth  of  one  per 
cent  in  the  spruce  region.  By  comparison  with  rates  paid  for 
insurance  on  buildings  in  cities  where  the  best  fire  protection 
is  afforded  and  fire  hazard  is  enormously  less  than  in  the  forest, 
the  absurdly  low  rate  now  paid  for  the  protection  (insurance) 
of  forests  from  fires  will  be  at  once  apparent. 

Sentiment  for  the  better  protection  of  the  forest  is  rapidly 
growing  in  New  England,  and  the  state  organizations  for  forest 
fire  protection  are  each  year  becoming  more  efiicient. 

The  increase  of  public  sentiment  should  result  in  making 
available  larger  sums  of  money  for  fire  protection  and  this,  with 
the  greater  efficiency  of  the  organization,  will  undoubtedly  re- 
sult in  a  lessening  of  the  annual  forest  fire  loss 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

This  bibliography  is  not  intended  to  cover  all  material  bearing 
on  the  trees  and  forests  of  New  England,  but  an  effort  has  been 
made  to  include  such  books,  pamphlets  and  articles  deahng  with 
forestry  problems  as  might  prove  of  practical  value  to  the 
reader. 

Nearly  all  the  reports  and  bulletins  issued  by  the  various 
state  forestry  departments  will  be  found  listed  here,  as  well  as 
such  of  the  bulletins  and  circulars  issued  by  the  United  States 
Forest  Service,  as  bear  on  New  England  conditions. 

State  and  federal  publications,  reports  of  forestry  associations 
and  societies,  current  articles  and  a  few  books  make  up  forestry 
literature  at  the  present  time. 

The  material  is  arranged  alphabetically  according  to  authors. 

Ayres,  Philip  W.  Annual  Reports  of  Society  for  Protection  of  New  Hamp- 
shire Forests.     Concord.     (Commence  with  1902.) 

Ayres,  Philip  W.  Commercial  Importance  of  the  White  Mountain  Forests. 
Circular  168,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Washington. 
32  pages.     1909. 

Ayres,  Philip  W.  Is  New  England's  Wealth  in  Danger?  New  England  ]\Iaga- 
zine,  March,  April,  May,  1908. 

Bowman,  Isaiah.     Forest  Physiography.     New  York.     730  pages.     1911. 

Bradley,  Reginald  R.  Suggestions  for  Handling  Pulpwood  Lands  in  Eastern 
Canada.     Forestry  Quarterly.     Vol.  VI.     Ithaca.     Pages  220-228.     1908. 

Bristol,  T.  L.  Some  Practical  Results  of  Forestry  in  Connecticut.  Fifth 
Annual  Bulletin,  Connecticut  Forestry  Association.  Hartford.  Pages  13-17. 
1907. 

Brixton,  W.  E.  Tenth  Report  of  the  State  Entomologist,  contained  in  Report 
of  the  Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Part  IX  of  Biennial 
Report  of  1909-10.     New  Haven.     Pages  657-712.     1911. 

Bronson,  Elliott  B.  Discussion  of  the  Connecticut  Forest  Fire  Law.  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Connecticut  Forestry  Association.     Hartford.     Pages  20-23.     1909. 

Bryan,  A.  Hugh.      Maple-sap  Sirup:  Its  manufacture,  composition  and  effect 
of  environment  thereon.     Bulletin  134,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture.     Washington.     10  pages.     1910. 
420 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  421 

Bryant,  Edw.  Sohier.  Practical  Forestry  for  Waterworks.  Reprinted  from 
Journal  of  the  New  England  Waterworks  Association.  Vol.  XXV.  Boston. 
Pages  243-246.     iQii. 

Card,  Fred  W.  Forests  of  Rhode  Island.  Bulletin  No.  88,  Rhode  Island  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station.     Kingston,  R.  I.     39  pages.     1902. 

Carr,  M.  S.,  and  others.  Soil  Survey  of  Washington  County,  New  York.  Ad- 
vance Sheets,  Bureau  of  Soils,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Washington. 
59  pages.     191 1. 

Cary,  Austin.  Unprofessional  Forestry.  Forestry  Quarterly.  Vol.  IV.  Ithaca. 
Pages  183-187.     1906. 

Cary,  Austin.  Practical  Forestry  on  a  Spruce  Tract  in  Maine.  Circular  131, 
Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Washington.  15  pages. 
1907. 

Cary,  Austin.  A  Manual  for  Northern  Woodsmen.  Published  by  Harvard 
University,  Cambridge.     250  pages.     1909. 

Chandler,  B.  A.  Vermont  Summer  School  of  Forestry  and  Horticulture.  .A.mer- 
ican  Forestry,  Dec,  191 1.     Pages  735-740. 

Clark,  A.  M.  Trees  of  Vermont.  Bulletin  No.  73,  Vermont  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station.     Burlington.     50  pages.     1899. 

Clinton,  G.  P.  Report  of  the  Station  Botanist,  contained  in  Connecticut  Agri- 
cultural E.xperiment  Station  Report  for  1908.  New  Haven.  Pages  849-907. 
1909. 

Connecticut,  State  Forester.  Forest  Survey  of  Litchfield  and  New  Haven 
Counties.  Connecticut  Forestry  Pubhcation  No.  5,  Connecticut  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station.     New  Haven.     47  pages.     1909. 

Connecticut,  State  Forester.  Instructions  to  Fire  Wardens  and  Others, 
Relative  to  Forest  Fires  in  Connecticut.     New  Haven.     40  pages. 

Connecticut,  State  Forester.  Annual  Reports  of  the  State  Forester  of  Con- 
necticut.    New  Haven.     (Commence  with  1906.) 

Connecticut,  State  Forester.  Chestnut  in  Connecticut,  and  the  Improvement 
of  the  Woodlot.  Bulletin  No.  154,  Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station.     41  pages.     1906. 

Cook,  H.  O.  A  Forest  Fire-wagon  for  Massachusetts  Towns.  Bulletin  of  the 
Harvard  Forestry  Club.     Vol.  I.,  pp.  42-43.     Cambridge.     1911. 

Cotton,  J.  S.  Improvement  of  Pastures  in  Eastern  New  York,  and  the  New 
England  States.  Circular  No.  49,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industrj',  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture.     Washington.     10  pages.     19 10. 

Curtis,  E.  D.  The  Practice  of  Forestry  by  a  Connecticut  Land  Owner.  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Connecticut  Forestry  Association.  Hartford.  Pages  24-31. 
1909. 

Dana,  S.  T.  Paper  Birch  in  the  Northeast.  Circular  No.  163,  Forest  Service, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.     Washington.     37  pages.      1907. 

Defebaugh,  James  Elliott.  History  of  the  Lumber  Industry  of  .America. 
Vol.11.     New  England.     Chicago.     Pages  1-301.     1907. 

Eddy,  E.  M.  C.  Cooperation  of  a  Town  and  Railroad  for  Fire  Protection.  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Connecticut  Forestry  Association.  Hartford.  Pages  16-19. 
1909. 


422  FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 

FiPPiN,  Elmer  O.  Soil  Survey  of  the  Connecticut  Valley.  Fifth  Report  Field 
Operations  of  the  Bureau  of  Soils,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Washing- 
ton.    Pages  39-58.     1904. 

Fisher,  R.  T.  An  Account  of  Operations  in  the  Harvard  Forest,  1908-09. 
Bulletin  of  the  Harvard  Forestry  Club.    Vol.1.    Pages  1-9.    Cambridge.     191 1. 

Fox,  Wm.  F.,  and  Hubbard,  Wm.  F.  The  Sugar-maple  Industry.  Bulletin  No. 
59,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Washington.  56  pages. 
1905. 

Goodrich,  L.  W.  Forestry.  Reprinted  from  Journal  of  the  New  England 
Waterworks  Association.     Vol.  XXIV.     Hartford.     Pages  345-352.     1910. 

Gould,  H.  F.  Some  Preliminary  Investigations  concerning  the  Ratio  between 
DBH  and  DIB  at  Stump  for  White  Pine  in  Massachusetts.  Bulletin  of  the 
Harv^ard  Forestry  Club.     Vol.1.     Pages  44-45.     Cambridge.     1911. 

Graves,  H.  S.  American  Forestry.  Proceedings  of  the  Connecticut  Forestry 
Association.     Hartford.     Pages  32-40.     1909. 

Graves,  H.  S.  The  Management  of  Second-growth  Sprout  Forests.  Separate 
525,  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1910.  Washington.  Pages 
157-168.     1910. 

Graves,  H.  S.  Notes  on  the  Rate  of  Growth  of  Red  Cedar,  Red  Oak  and  Chest- 
nut.    Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  III.     Ithaca.     Pages  349-353-     IQOS- 

Graves,  H.  S.  Principles  of  Handling  Woodlands.  New  York.  320  pages. 
1911. 

Graves,  H.  S.     Forest  Mensuration.     New  York.     437  pages.     1906. 

Graves,  H.  S.,  and  Fisher,  R.  T.  The  Woodlot.  Bulletin  No.  42,  Forest  Ser- 
vice, U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.     Washington.     89  pages.     1903. 

Hawes,  a.  F.  Economic  Thinning  of  White  Pine.  Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  V. 
Ithaca.     Pages  368-372.     1907. 

Hawes,  A.  F.  Review  of  the  Forestry  Situation  in  Connecticut.  Fifth  Annual 
Bulletin,  Connecticut  Forestry  Association.     Hartford.     Pages  5-13.     1907. 

Hawes,  A.  F.  The  Forests  of  Connecticut.  The  Connecticut  Magazine,  Vol.  X, 
No.  2. 

Hawes,  A.  F.  Forestry.  The  Salvation  of  a  Wornout  Connecticut  Town. 
New  England  Magazine,  September,  1908. 

Hawley,  R.  C.  Treatment  of  Hardwood  Lands  in  Southwestern  Connecticut. 
Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  V.     Ithaca.     Pages  283-295.     1907. 

Hopkins,  A.  D.  Bulletin  No.  28,  Division  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture.     Washington. 

Hopkins,  A.  D.  Some  of  the  Principal  Insect  Enemies  of  Coniferous  Forests  in 
the  United  States.  Yearbook  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1903. 
Pages  265-282. 

Hopkins,  A.  D.  Contributions  Toward  a  Monograph  of  the  Bark-weevils  of  the 
Genus  Pissodes.  Technical  Series  No.  20,  Part  I,  Bureau  of  Entomology, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.     Washington.     67  pages.     1911. 

Hopkins,  A.  D.  Barkbeetles  of  the  Genus  Dendroctonus.  Bulletin  No.  83, 
Part  I,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Washington. 
169  pages.     1909. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  423 

Jones,    L.    R.     Forestry   in    Vermont.     Forestry   Quarterly,    Vol.    VI.     Ithaca. 

Pages  234-236.     1908. 
Jones,  C.  H.,  and  others.      The  Maple-sap    Flow.      Bulletin  No.  103,  Vermont 

Agricultural  E.xperiment  Station.     140  pages.     1903.     (Bulletin  No.   105,  by 

J.  L.  Hills,  is  a  popular  edition  of  Bulletin  No.  103.     28  pages.) 
Kempton,  Harold  B.     Planting  of  White  Pine  in  New  England.     Bulletin  No. 

45,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.     Washington.     40  pages. 

1903. 
Kirkland,  a.  H.     The  Gipsy  and  Brown-tail  Moths.     Bulletin  No.  i.  Office  of 

the  Superintendent  for  suppressing  the  gipsy  and  brown-tail  moths.     Boston. 

27  pages.     1905. 
Lee,  Ora,  Jr.     Soil  Survey  of  the  Orono  Area,  Maine.     Advance  Sheets,  Field 

Operations  of  the  Bureau  of  Soils,   1909,   U.  S.   Department  of  Agriculture. 

Washington.     37  pages.     19 10. 
Maine,  Forest  Commissioner.     Biennial  Reports  of  the  Forest  Commissioner  of 

Maine.     Waterville.     (Commence  with  1892.) 
Massachusetts.     Mountain  Parks  of  Massachusetts.     Woodland  and  Roadside. 

Page  23.     Boston.     June,  1909. 
Massachusetts,   State  Forester.     Reforestation   in   Massachusetts.     Boston. 

35  pages.     1910. 
Massachusetts,    State    Forester.      The    Chestnut-bark    Disease.      Boston. 

7  pages.     1911.  - 
Massachusetts,   State  Forester,     Laws  Relating  to  Forestry  and  the  Sup- 
pression of  the  Gipsy  and  Brown-tail  Moths.     Boston.     67  pages.     1910. 
Massachusetts,  State  Forester.     We  Must  Stop  Forest  Fires  in  Massachusetts. 

Boston.     43  pages.     1909. 
Massachusetts,  State  Forester.      How  to  make  Improvement  Thinnings  in 

Massachusetts  Woodlands.     Boston.     21  pages.     1910. 
Massachusetts,  State  Forester.     A  Study  of  the  Massachusetts  Wood-using 

Industries.     Boston.     37  pages.     1910. 
Massachusetts,   State   Forester.     Annual  Reports  of   the   State   Forester  of 

Massachusetts.     Boston.     (Commence  with  1904.) 
Massachusetts,  State   Forester.      The  "Wilt  Disease,"  or  "Flacherie,"  of 

the  Gipsy  Moth.     Boston.     60  pages.     1911. 
Massachusetts,  State  Forester.     Forest  Working  Plan  for  Land  of  City  of 

Fall  River  on  the  North  Watuppa  Watershed.     Boston.     30  pages.     1909. 
Massachusetts,  State  Forester.     Forest  Mensuration  of  the  White  Pine  in 

Massachusetts.     Boston.     50  pages.     1908. 
Massachusetts.     A    Harvard    University    Forest.     Woodland    and    Roadside. 

December,  1907. 
Mass.achusetts.     Moth   Work.     American   Forestry.     Washington.     Page  501. 

August,  191 1. 
Metcalf,  H.     The  Present  Status  of  the  Chestnut-bark  Disease.     Bulletin  No. 

141,  Part  V,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.     Wash- 
ington.    19H. 


424  FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 

Metcalf,  H.     The  Immunity  of  the  Japanese  Chestnut  to  the  Bark  Disease. 

Bulletin  No.  121,  Part  VI.,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.S.  Department  of 

Agriculture.     Washington.     Pages  3-4.     1908. 
MooNEY,    C.    N.,  and  Byers,  W.  C.      Soil  Survey  of  the  Nashua  Area,  New 

Hampshire.     Advance  Sheets,  Field  Operations  of  the  Bureau  of  Soils,  1909, 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.     Washington.     34  pages.     1910. 
MooNEY,    Charles   N.,  and   others.     Soil  Survey  of  Merrimack  County,  New 

Hampshire.     Advance  Sheets,  Field  Operations  of  the  Bureau  of  Soils,  1906, 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.     Washington.     39  "pages.     1908. 
Moore,   Barrington,   and  Rogers,   R.   L.     Notes  on   Balsam   Fir.      Forestry 

Quarterly,  Vol.  V.     Ithaca.     Pages  41-50.     1907. 
New  Hampshire,  Forestry  Commission.     Reports  of  the  Forestry  Commission 

of  New  Hampshire,  under  dates  of  1885,  1891,  1893  and  1894. 
New  Hampshire,   Forestry  Commission.     Biennial   Reports  of  the  Forestry 

Commission  of  New  Hampshire.     Concord.     (Commence  with  1895-96.) 
New  Hampshire,  Forestry  Commission.     Forest  Laws  and  Organization  of  the 

Forestry  Department.     Concord,  N.  H.     63  pages.     1911. 
New  Hampshire,  State  Forester.     Forest  Laws  of  New  Hampshire.     Bulle- 
tin No.  I,  New  Hampshire  Forestry  Commission.     Concord.     17  pages.     1909. 
Peters,  J.   G.     Cooperation   with   States  in   Fire   Patrol.     American  Forestry. 

Washington.     Pages  383-384.     July,  1911. 
Pettis,  C.  R.     How  to  Plant  and  Grow  Conifers  in  the  Northeastern  States. 

Bulletin  No.  76,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.     Washington. 

Page  36.     1909. 
Rhode   Island,    Commissioner    of    Forestry.     Laws    Pertaining    to    Forests. 

Providence.     Page  17. 
Rhode  Island,  Commissioner  of  Forestry.     Annual  Reports  of  Commissioner 

of  Forestry  of  Rhode  Island.     Providence.     (Commence  with  1907.) 
Rodgers,  D.  M.,  and  Burgess,  A.  F.     Report  on  the  Field  Work  Against  the 

Gipsy  Moth  and  the  Brown-Tail  Moth.     Bulletin  87,  Bureau  of  Entomology, 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.     Washington.     81  pages.     1910. 
Schwartz,  G.  Frederick.     Sprout  Forests  of  the  Housatonic  V'alley.     Forestry 

Quarterly,  Vol.  V.     Ithaca.     Pages  1 21-153.     iQo?- 
Spalding,  V.  M.     The  White  Pine.     Bulletin  No.  22,  Division  of  Forestry,  U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture.     Washington.     179  pages.     1899. 
Spaulding,  Perley.     The  Blister  Rust  of  White  Pine.     Bulletin  No.  206,  Bureau 

of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.     Washington.     88  pages. 

1911. 
Spaulding,  Perley.     European  Currant  Rust  on  White  Pine  in  America.     Cir- 
cular No.  38,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.     Wash- 
ington.    4  pages.     1909. 
Spaulding,  Perley.     Present  Status  of  the  White  Pine  Blight.     Circular  No.  35, 

Bureau   of   Plant   Ipdustry,  U.  S.  Department   of   Agriculture.     Washington. 

12  pages.     1909. 
Spring,  Samuel  N.     Natural  Replacement  of  White  Pine  on  Old  Fields  in  New 

England.     Bulletin  No.  63,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Washington.     32  pages.     1905. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  425 

Start,  E.  A.  Known  by  Their  Fruits.  American  Forestry,  September,  1910. 
Washington.     Pages  535-539-     iQio- 

Stephen,  John  W.  Lopping  Branches  in  Lumbering  Operations.  Reprint  from 
the  Fifteenth  Annual  Report  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commission,  New  York 
State.     Albany.     Pages  94-102.     1909. 

SuTER,  H.  M.  Forest  Fires  in  Adirondacks  in  1903.  Circular  No.  26,  Forest 
Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.     Washington.     15  pages.     1904. 

Thomson,  E.  H.  Agricultural  Survey  of  Four  Townships  in  Southern  New  Hamp- 
shire. Circular  No.  75,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture.    Washington.     19  pages.     1911. 

Vermont,  State  Forester.  The  Management  of  Vermont  Forests  with  Special 
Reference  to  White  Pine.  Bulletin  No.  156,  Vermont  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station.     Burlington.     Pages  100-139.     191 1. 

Vermont,  State  Forester.  Annual  Reports  of  the  State  Forester.  Burlington. 
(Commence  with  1909.) 

Vermont,  State  Forester.  Preliminary  Statement  Regarding  the  Forestry 
Problems  of  Vermont.  Publication  No.  i,  Vermont  Forest  Service.  Burling- 
ton.    13  pages.     1909. 

Vermont,  State  Forester.  Forest  Fires  in  Vermont.  Publication  No.  2,  Ver- 
mont Forest  Service.     Burlington.     48  pages.     1909. 

Vermont,  State  Forester.  Instructions  to  Forest  Fire  Wardens  and  Woodland 
Owners  Regarding  Forest  Fires.  Forest  Service  Publication  No.  7.  Burling- 
ton.    19  pages.     1911. 

Von  Schrenk,  Herman.  Some  Diseases  of  New  England  Conifers.  Bulletin 
No.  25,  Division  of  Vegetable  Physiology  and  Pathology,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture.     Washington.     56  pages.     1900. 

Weigle,  Wm.  G.,  and  Frothingham,  E.  H.  The  Aspens.  Bulletin  No.  93, 
Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Washington.  ^:i  pages. 
1911. 

Wentling,  J.  P.  Wood  Used  for  Packing  Bo.xes  in  New  England.  Circular 
No.  78,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  .'\griculture.  Washington. 
4  pages.     1907. 

Westgate,  J.  M.  Reclamation  of  Cape  Cod  Sand  Dunes.  Bulletin  No.  65, 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Washington. 
36  pages.     1904. 

Wilder,  Henry  J.,  and  Belden,  H.  L.  Soil  Survey  of  the  Vergennes  Area, 
Vermont  —  New  York.  Si.xth  Report  Field  Operations  of  the  Bureau  of  Soils, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.     Washington.     Pages  73-94.     1905. 

Wildes,  W.  K.  State  Forests  in  Vermont.  American  Forestry,  May,  191 1. 
Washington.     Pages  253-256. 

Wilson,  James.  Report  of  Secretary  of  Agriculture  on  Southern  .Appalachian, 
and  White  Mountains  Watersheds.  Senate  Document  No.  91.  Si.xtieth 
Congress.     Washington.     39  pages.     1908. 

WooLSEY,  T.  S.,  Jr.  Strip  Thinning.  Proceedings  Society  of  American  Foresters. 
Vol.  II.     Washington.     Pages  38-41.     191 1. 


TABLES. 


It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  authors  to  gather  together  all  the  reli- 
able tables  at  present  available,  which  contain  figures  showing  vol- 
umes and  growth  for  New  England  trees  and  forests.  The  principal 
log  rules  used  in  the  region  have  also  been  included.  In  connection 
with  the  practice  of  forestry  such  tables  are  of  great  value,  and  it  is 
unfortunate  that  as  yet,  owing  to  the  recent  rise  of  the  movement, 
more  information  has  not  been  obtained.  The  field  is  very  incom- 
pletely covered  and  indeed  for  many  important  species  data  is  en- 
tirely lacking.  For  certain  trees,  such  as  white  pine  and  chestnut, 
comparatively  full  studies  have  been  made,  and  many  valuable  tables 
are  available. 

Except  for  tables  XII  and  XXXIV,  none  of  the  tables  given  here 
are  original,  but  have  been  taken  from  various  sources,  of  which 
acknowledgment  has  been  made  in  the  preface.  Also,  in  connection 
with  each  table  will  be  found  a  statement  as  to  the  source  from  which 
it  was  secured. 

The  tables  have  been  arranged  in  the  following  groups: 

Log  Rules. 

Volume  Tables. 

Growth  of  Individual  Trees. 

Yield  Tables. 


426 


TABLES 


427 


LOG   RULES. 
TABLE   in.  —  SCRIBNER  LOG  RULE. 

(Decimal  "  C  ")2 


Length  in  feet. 

Diameter 

Diameter 

in 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

in 

inches. 

inches. 

Contents  in  board  feet. 

6 

05 

0-5 

I 

I 

I 

2 

6 

7 

0.5 

I 

I 

2 

2 

3 

7 

8 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

3 

8 

9 

I 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

9 

10 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

6 

10 

II 

2 

3 

4 

4 

5 

7 

II 

12 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

12 

13 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

10 

13 

14 

4 

6 

7 

9 

10 

II 

14 

15 

5 

7 

9 

II 

12 

14 

15 

16 

6 

8 

10 

14 

16 

16 

17 

7 

9 

12 

il 

16 

18 

17 

18 

8 

II 

13 

16 

19 

21 

18 

19 

9 

12 

15 

18 

21 

24 

19 

20 

II 

14 

17 

21 

24 

28 

20 

21 

12 

15 

19 

23 

27 

30 

21 

22 

13 

17 

21 

25 

29 

33 

22 

23 

14 

19 

23 

28 

33 

38 

23 

24 

15 

21 

25 

30 

35 

40 

24 

25 

17 

23 

29 

34 

40 

46 

25 

26 

19 

25 

31 

37 

44 

50 

26 

27 

21 

27 

34 

41 

48 

55 

27 

28 

22 

29 

36 

44 

51 

58 

28 

29 

23 

31 

38 

46 

53 

61 

29 

30 

25 

33 

41 

49 

57 

66 

30 

31 

27 

36 

44 

53 

62 

71 

31 

32 

28 

37 

46 

55 

64 

74 

32 

33 

29 

39 

49 

59 

69 

78 

33 

34 

30 

40 

SO 

60 

70 

80 

34 

35 

33 

44 

55 

66 

77 

88 

35 

36 

35 

46 

58 

69 

81 

92 

36 

1  Taken  from  "The  Woodsman's  Handbook." 

2  The  total  scale  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  figures  in  this  table  by  10.  Thus  the  contents  of  a 
6-inch  8-foot  log  are  given  as  0.5,  so  the  total  scale  is  5  board  feet.  A  30-inch  16-foot  log  is  given 
as  66,  or  a  total  scale  of  660  board  feet. 


428 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


TABLE   IV. —  DOYLE  LOG  RULE. 


Length  in  feet. 

Diameter  in 
inches. 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

Contents  in  board  feet. 

6 

2.0 

2.5 

3-0 

3-5 

4.0 

7 

4-5 

5-6 

6.8 

7-9 

9.0 

8 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

9 

12 

16 

19 

22 

25 

lO 

18 

23 

27 

32 

36 

II 

24 

31 

37 

43 

49 

12 

32 

40 

48 

56 

64 

13 

40 

50 

61 

71 

81 

U 

50 

62 

75 

88 

100 

15 

60 

75 

91 

106 

121 

i6 

72 

90 

108 

126 

144 

T7 

84 

106 

127 

148 

169 

i8 

98 

122 

147 

171 

196 

19 

112 

141 

169 

197 

225 

20 

128 

160 

192 

224 

256 

21 

144 

181 

217 

253 

289 

22 

162 

202 

243 

283 

324 

23 

180 

226 

271 

313 

359 

24 

200 

250 

300 

350 

400 

25 

220 

276 

331 

3S6 

441 

26 

242 

302 

363 

423 

484 

27 

264 

330 

397 

463 

530 

28 

288 

360 

432 

504 

576 

29 

312 

391 

469 

547 

62s 

30 

338 

422 

507 

591 

676 

31 

364 

456 

547 

638 

729 

32 

39? 

490 

588 

686 

784 

33 

420 

526 

631 

736 

841 

34 

45° 

562 

675 

787 

900 

35 

480 

601 

721 

841 

961 

36 

512 

640 

768 

896 

1,024 

TABLES  429 

TABLE  v.  — MAINE,   HOLLAND,   OR  BANGOR   LOG  RULE.i 


Diameter  in  inches. 

Length  in 
feet. 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

Contents 

in  board  feet. 

10 

12 

19 

27 

32 

42 

SI 

65 

75 

89 

II 

14 

21 

30 

36 

46 

57 

70 

81 

98 

12 

15 

23 

33 

39 

51 

62 

78 

90 

107 

13 

17 

25 

36 

43 

55 

67 

85 

98 

"5 

14 

18 

27 

39 

46 

59 

72 

92 

105 

124 

15 

19 

29 

41 

49 

64 

78 

98 

113 

133 

16 

20 

31 

44 

52 

68 

83 

105 

120 

142 

T7 

22 

33 

47 

56 

72 

88 

III 

128 

151 

18 

23 

35 

5° 

59 

76 

93 

118 

13s 

160 

19 

24 

37 

52 

62 

81 

98 

124 

143 

169 

20 

25 

39 

55 

65 

85 

103 

131 

150 

178 

21 

27 

41 

58 

69 

89 

109 

137 

158 

186 

22 

28 

43 

61 

72 

94 

114 

144 

165 

19s 

23 

29 

45 

63 

75 

98 

119 

150 

173 

204 

24 

30 

47 

66 

78 

102 

124 

157 

180 

213 

25 

32 

49 

69 

82 

106 

129 

164 

188 

222 

26 

33 

50 

72 

85 

III 

134 

170 

195 

231 

27 

34 

52 

74 

88 

115 

140 

177 

203 

240 

28 

36 

54 

76 

92 

119 

145 

•  183 

210 

249 

29 

37 

56 

79 

95 

123 

150 

190 

218 

258 

30 

38 

58 

82 

98 

128 

155 

196 

225 

266 

I 

Jiameter 

in  inches 

■ 

Length 
in  feet. 

15 

16 

17 

., 

_!'„ 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

C 

intents  in 

board  fe 

et. 

10 

lOI 

III 

128 

145 

169 

189 

210 

227 

250 

274  . 

II 

III 

123 

142 

160 

1S7 

209 

232 

250 

274 

298 

12 

121 

134 

154 

174 

203 

227 

252 

272 

300 

327 

13 

131 

145 

167 

189 

220 

246 

273 

295 

326 

357 

14 

141 

157 

179 

203 

237 

265 

294 

318 

351 

384 

15 

151 

168 

192 

218 

254 

284 

315 

340 

376 

412 

16 

161 

179 

205 

232 

271 

302 

336 

363 

401 

439 

17 

171 

190 

218 

247 

288 

321 

357 

386 

426 

466 

18 

181 

201 

231 

261 

305 

340 

378 

408 

451 

494 

19 

192 

212 

243 

276 

322 

359 

399 

431 

476 

521 

20 

202 

223 

256 

290 

339 

378 

420 

454 

501 

549 

21 

212 

23  s 

269 

305 

356 

397 

441 

476 

526 

576 

22 

222 

246 

282 

319 

373 

415 

462 

499 

551 

604 

23 

232 

257 

29s 

334 

390 

435 

483 

522 

576 

631 

24 

242 

268 

307 

348 

407 

454 

504 

545 

601 

659 

25 

252 

279 

320 

363 

424 

473 

525 

567 

626 

686 

26 

262 

291 

333 

378 

441 

491 

545 

590 

651 

713 

27 

272 

302 

346 

392 

458 

Sio 

566 

613 

676 

741 

28 

282 

3T^3 

359 

407 

475 

529 

587 

635 

701 

768 

29 

292 

324 

371 

421 

492 

548 

608 

658 

726 

796 

30 

302 

335 

384 

436 

509 

S67 

629 

681 

751 

823 

Taken  from  "A  Manual  for  Northern  Woodsmen.' 


430 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


TABLE   VL  — NEW   HAMPSHIRE   LOG  RULE. 


Diameter  in  inches. 

Length 
in  feet. 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

" 

12 

13 

14 

IS 

16 

17 

18 

Contents  in  board  feet. 

I 

3 

7 
10 

8 

".I 

*ii 

12 

9 

10 
II 

12 
13 
14 

II 
II 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
25 
26 

28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
32 
33 
34 
35 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 

19 

20 
21 

23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

15 

IS 

13 

15 
16 

4 

5 

6 

2 

6 

7 
■'8 

9 
10 

I 

3 

4 

20 

17 
18 

7 
"8 

20 

19 



5 

II 
12 

13 
14 

15 
16 

17 

'18 

19 
20 
21 

25 

25 

23 
24 

25 

9 

II 

13 

15 
16 

17 
18 

6 

30 

8 

10 

12 
13 

14 

15 
16 

27 
28 

30 

7 

9 

II 

35 

29 

t    30 

31 

32 

33 
34 

f^ 

37 
3« 
39 
40 

19 
20 

22 
23 
24 

25 

26 

27 

'28 
29 
30 
31 

14 

17 

2 

6 

'8" 

10 

12 
13 

35 

15 
16 

18 
19 

21 
22 

23 
24 

25 
26 

40 

40 

43 

9 

14 

17 

20 
21 

22 

12 

IS 

18 

48 

10 

16 

19 

45 

50 

•  Taken  from  "A  Manual  for  Northern  Woodsmen." 


TABLES 


431 


TABLE   VL  — NEW   HAMPSHIRE   LOG  RULE.  — Continued. 


Diameter  in  inches. 

Length 
in  feet.    ^^ 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

Contents  in  board  feet. 

12 

21 

25 

27 

29 

32 

34 

37 

39 

42 

45 

48 

51 

54.0 

57 

61 

13          ■• 

.      20 

25 

29 

37 

40 

43 

46 

49 

52 

55 

58.0 

62 

66 

14           2 

0  .  .  . 

34 

37 

40 

43 

46 

49 

53 

56 

60 

63.0 

67 

71 

15         •• 

'26 

31 

43 

46 

49 

53 

56 

60 

64 

68.0 

72 

76 

16         .. 

•      25 

30 

'36 

39 

46 

49 

53 

56 

60 

64 

68 

72.0 

77 

81 

17         .. 

35 

■45 

48 

52 

56 

60 

64 

68 

72 

77.0 

81 

86 

18           2 

s  ••• 

31 

■40 

44 

51 

55 

59 

63 

68 

72 

77 

81.0 

86 

91 

19         .. 

-  30 

'36 

39 

50 

54 

58 

62 

67 

71 

76 

81 

86.0 

91 

96 

20 

45 

49 

57 

61 

66 

70 

75 

80 

85 

90.0 

96 

lOI 

21           3 

0  . . . 

'36 

40 

60 

64 

69 

74 

79 

84 

89 

95 -o 

100 

106 

22 

45 

49 

'58 

63 

67 

72 

77 

83 

88 

94 

99.0 

105 

III 

23         .. 

•  '36 

40 

'56 

65 

70 

76 

81 

86 

92 

98 

104.0 

no 

116 

24         .. 

45 

50 

68 

74 

79 

84 

90 

96 

102 

108.0 

115 

121 

25        3 

5    39 

'56 

61 

'66 

71 

77 

82 

88 

94 

100 

106 

113. 0 

120 

126 

26    .. 

45 

49 

74 

80 

85 

91 

98 

104 

III 

117. 0 

125 

132 

27 

'56 

'66 

77 

83 

89 

95 

lOI 

108 

115 

122.0 

129 

137 

28        4 

0  .  .  . 

'63 

74 

80 

86 

92 

98 

105 

112 

119 

126.0 

134 

142 

29      .. 

■    45 

50 

55 

'60 

65 

71 

83 

89 

95 

102J109 

116 

123 

131. 0 

139 

143 

30      .. 

85 

92 

99 

105,113 

120 

128 

1350 

144 

152 

31       •• 

'64 

'82 

88 

95 

102 

109116 

124 

132 

140.0 

148 

157 

32        4 

5    50 

55 

60 

72 

'78 

91 

98 

105 

112  120 

128 

136 

145  0 

153 

162 

33       • 

74 

94 

lOI 

108 

116  124 

132 

140 

149.0 

158 

167 

34 

'64 

70 

'83 

90 

97 

104 

112 

ii9!r28 

136 

145 

154.0 

163 

172 

35        4 

9    55 

'60 

100 

107 

115 

i23ii3i 

140 

149 

158.0 

167 

177 

36       . 

74 

81 

'88 

95 

102 

no 

118 

i26!i35 

144 

153 

162  .5 

172 

182 

37       . 

70 

105 

113 

122 

130  139 

148 

157 

167.0 

177 

187 

38       . 

'65 

... 

ICX3 

108 

116 

125 

133  143 

152 

162 

172.0 

182 

192 

39 

5'6i 

'k'l 

95 

III 

120 

128 

137  146 

156 

166 

176.0 

187 

197 

40 

75 

90 

io6 

114 

123 

131 

140'iso 

160 

170 

181. 0 

191 

202 

432 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW  ENGLAND 


TABLE  VIL  —  VERMONT  LOG  RULE. 


Diameter  in  inches. 

Length 
in  feet. 

6 

7 

8 

Q 

10 

II 

12 

13 

14 

IS 

16 

17 

18 

Contents  in  board  feet 

8 

12 

16 

21 

27 

33 

40 

48 

S6 

6S 

75 

8S 

96 

108 

9 

13 

18 

24 

30 

37 

4S 

S4 

03 

73 

84 

96 

108 

121 

lO 

IS 

20 

27 

34 

42 

SO 

60 

70 

82 

94 

107 

120 

135 

i6 

22 

29 

37 

46 

ss 

66 

77 

90 

103 

117 

132 

143 

i8 

24 

32 

40 

SO 

60 

72 

84 

98 

112 

128 

144 

162 

19 

27 

3S 

44 

S4 

66 

78 

92 

106 

122 

139 

157 

175 

21 

29 

37 

47 

S^ 

71 

84 

90 

114 

131 

149 

169 

i8q 

22 

31 

40 

5^ 

62 

76 

90 

106 

122 

141 

160 

181 

202 

Diameter  in  inches. 

Length 
in  feet. 

19 

20 

'■ 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

Contents  in  board  feet. 

8 

I20 

133 

147 

161 

176 

192 

208 

225 

243 

261 

280 

300 

9 

I3S 

ISO 

1^5 

181 

198 

216 

234 

253 

273 

294 

315 

337 

lO 

150 

167 

184 

202 

220 

240 

260 

282 

304 

327 

350 

375 

II 

16^ 

183 

202 

222 

242 

264 

286 

310 

334 

359 

38s 

412 

12 

180 

200 

220 

242 

264 

288 

312 

338 

364 

392 

420 

450 

13 

iq6 

217 

239 

262 

287 

312 

339 

366 

395 

425 

456 

487 

14 

211 

233 

2S7 

282 

309 

336 

36S 

394 

425 

457 

491 

525 

IS 

226 

250 

276 

302 

331 

360 

391 

422 

456 

490 

526 

562 

TABLFS  433 

TABLE   VIII.  — CLARK'S  INTERNATIONAL  LOG  RULE.i 


Length  in  feet. 

Diam- 

eter in 

8 

9 

10 

n 

12 

13 

14 

It 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

inches. 

Contents  in  board  feet 

2 

6 

10 

10 

10 

15 

15 

15 

20 

20 

20 

25 

25 

30 

30 

7 

IS 

15 

15 

20 

20 

25 

25 

30 

30 

35 

35 

40 

45 

8 

20 

20 

25 

25 

30 

35 

35 

40 

45 

45 

50 

55 

60 

9 

25 

30 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

lO 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

85 

90 

95 

II 

40 

45 

50 

55 

65 

70 

75 

80 

90 

95 

105 

no 

115 

12 

50 

55 

65 

70 

75 

85 

90 

100 

105 

IIS 

125 

130 

140 

13 

60 

65 

75 

85 

90 

100 

no 

120 

130 

140 

145. 

155 

165 

14 

70 

80 

90 

100 

no 

120 

130 

140 

150 

160 

17s 

185 

195 

15 

80 

90 

105 

115 

125 

140 

150 

160 

175 

i8s 

200 

215 

225 

i6 

95 

105 

120 

130 

145 

160 

170 

185 

200 

215 

230 

245 

260 

17 

105 

120 

135 

150 

165 

180 

195 

210 

225 

245 

260 

275 

295 

i8 

120 

13s 

155 

170 

185 

205 

220 

240 

255 

275 

29s 

310 

330 

19 

135 

155 

175 

190 

210 

230 

250 

270 

290 

310 

330 

350 

370 

20 

150 

170 

195 

215 

235 

255 

275 

300 

320 

345 

36s 

390 

410 

21 

170 

190 

215 

235 

260 

285 

305 

330 

355 

380 

405 

430 

455 

22 

185 

210 

235 

260 

285 

315 

340 

365 

390 

420 

445 

475 

500 

23 

205 

230 

260 

285 

315 

345 

370 

400 

430 

460 

490 

520 

550 

24 

225 

255 

285 

315 

345 

375 

405 

440 

470 

500 

535 

565 

600 

25 

245 

275 

310 

345 

375 

410 

445 

475 

510 

545 

580 

61S 

650 

26 

265 

300 

335 

370 

405 

445 

480 

520 

555 

595 

630 

670 

70s 

27 

290 

325 

365 

405 

440 

480 

520 

560 

600 

640 

680 

725 

76s 

28 

310 

350 

395 

435 

475 

520 

560 

605 

645 

690 

735 

780 

82s 

29 

335 

380 

425 

470 

510 

560 

605 

650 

695 

740 

790 

835 

88s 

30 

360 

405 

455 

500 

550 

600 

645 

695 

745 

795 

845 

895 

95° 

31 

385 

435 

485 

540 

590 

640 

695 

745 

800 

850 

905 

960 

1015 

32 

410 

465 

520 

575 

630 

685 

740 

795 

850 

910 

965 

1025 

1080 

33 

440 

495 

555 

610 

670 

730 

790 

850 

905 

970 

1030 

1090 

1150 

34 

470 

530 

590 

650 

715 

775 

840 

900 

965 

1030 

1095 

1 160 

1225 

35 

495 

560 

625 

690 

755 

825 

890 

955 

1025 

1095 

1160 

1230 

1300 

36 

525 

595 

665 

735 

800 

875 

945 

1015 

1085 

1 160 

1230 

1305 

1375 

H 

560 

630 

705 

775 

850 

925 

1000 

1075 

1150 

1225 

1300 

1380 

1455 

38 

590 

665 

745 

820 

895 

975 

1055 

1135 

1210 

1295 

1375 

1455 

IS3S 

39 

620 

705 

785 

865 

945 

1030 

IIIO 

1195 

1280 

1365 

1450 

153s 

1620 

40 

655 

740 

825 

910 

995 

108s 

1170 

1260 

1345 

1435 

1525 

1615 

1 70s 

41 

690 

780 

870 

960 

1050 

1 140 

1230 

1325 

1415 

1510 

1605 

1700 

1795 

42 

725 

820 

915 

'lOIO 

IIOO 

1200 

1295 

1390 

1490 

1585 

1685 

1785 

1885 

43 

760 

860 

960 

1060 

"55 

1260 

1360 

1460 

1560 

1665 

1770 

1870 

1975 

44 

800 

90c 

1005 

mo 

1215 

1320 

1425 

1530 

1635 

1745 

1855 

i960 

2070 

45 

835 

945 

1055 

1 160 

1270 

I1380 

1490 

1600 

1715 

1825 

1940 

2050 

216s 

46 

875 

99c 

IIOO 

1215 

11330 

1445 

1560 

1675 

1790 

1910 

2030 

2145 

2265 

47 

915 

1035 

1150 

JI270 

1390 

1510 

1630 

1750 

1870 

1995 

2120 

2240 

2365 

48 

955 

1 08c 

1205 

.325 

,1450 

11575 

1700 

1830 

1955 

2085 

2210 

2340 

2470 

I  By  permission  of  Judson  F.  Clark. 

'  The  contents  are  for  logs  sawn  with  band  saws  cutting  one-eighth  inch  kerf. 


434 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


TABLE  IX.— LOG  SCALE  FOR  WHITE   PINE,  1-INCH   BOARDS.' 

Based  on  the  measurement  of  1209  logs  sawed  in  Massachusetts  mills.  — 

Circular  saw,  j-inch  kerf. 


Diameter, 

inside  bark 

at  small 

end,  in 

inches. 


Length  of  log,  feet. 


Contents  in  board  feet. 


13 

17 

17 

21 

22 

27 

29 

35 

37 

44 

47 

55 

S8 

68 

70 

82 

83 

97 

96 

113 

III 

131 

26 
32 
40 
51 
64 

79 
98 

115 
136 
158 


Diameter, 

inside  bark 

at  small 

end,  in 

inches. 


Length  of  log,  feet. 


Contents  in  board  feet. 


104 
117 
131 


129 
146 
i6s 
184 
206 
230 

25s 
280 
310 
340 


150 
170 
192 
220 

243 
272 
300 
330 


180 
205 
230 
256 
288 


1  Taken  from  "Forest  Mensuration  of  the  White  Pine  in  Massachusetts." 


TABLE  X.  —  LOG  RULE  FOR  SECOND-GROWTH   WHITE  PINE.» 
—  SOUTHERN   NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

(Cut  into  both  square  and  round-edged  boards;  circular  saw,  j-inch  kerf.) 
Based  on  measurements  of  5177  logs. 


Length  of  log,  feet. 

Diameter, 

inside  bark 

at  small  end 

of  log, 

in  inches. 

Length  of  log,  feet. 

Diameter, 

10 

12 

14 

10 

12 

14 

at  small  end 

of  log, 

in  inches. 

Basis, 
613  logs. 

Basis, 
191S  logs. 

Basis, 
2649  logs. 

Basis, 
613  logs. 

Basis, 
191S  logs. 

Basis, 
2649  logs. 

Contents  in  board  feet. 

Contents  in  board  feet. 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 
II 

5 
8 
13 
18 
24 
30 
38 
47 
56 
66 
77 

7 
10 

15 
21 
28 
36 
46 
56 

68 
81 
96 

9 

12 
17 
24 
33 
42 

52 

65 
80 

97 
115 

14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 

89 
102 

112 
130 
149 
169 
189 
211 

235 
260 
284 

134 

'H 
176 

198 

222 

247 

275 

304 

333 
364 
398 

13 

>  Taken  from  Biennial  Report  of  the  New  Hampshire  Forestry  Commission  for  the  years  iQos-1906. 


TABLES 


435 


TABLE  XL  —  LOG  RULE  FOR  SECOND-GROWTH  HARDWOODS.^ 
—  SOUTHERN  NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

(Cut  into  1 5-inch,  round-edged  boards;  circular  saw,  |-inch  kerf.) 
Based  on  1831  12-foot  logs. 


Length  of  log,  feet. 

inside  bark 

at  small  end 

10 

12 

14 

of  log, 

Contents  in  board  feet. 

4 

6 

8 

10 

5 

9 

II 

13 

6 

13 

16 

19 

7 

18 

22 

26 

8 

25 

30 

35 

9 

32 

39 

46 

10 

42 

51 

60 

II 

54 

65 

76 

L 

ength  of  log, 

feet. 

inside  bark 

at  small  end 

10 

12                     14 

of  log, 

in  inches. 

Contents  in  board  feet. 

12 

68 

82 

96 

13 

«3 

100 

117 

14 

100 

120 

140 

15 

117 

141 

i6s 

16 

137 

i6s 

193 

17 

160 

192 

224 

18 

i«S 

222 

259 

Taken  from  Biennial  Report  of  the  New  Hampshire  Forestry  Commission  for  the  years  1905-1906. 


TABLE  Xn. 


LOG  RULE  GIVING  VOLUME  OF  CHESTNUT  LOGS 
8  FEET   LONG   IN   TIES.i 


Diameter,  out- 

Diameter, out- 

side bark  at 

Number  of 

Class. 

side  bark  at 

Number  of 

Class. 

small  end,  in 

ties. 

ties. 

inches. 

inches. 

7 

Second 

16 

2 

First 

8 

Second 

17 

2 

First 

9 

First 

18 

3 

First 

10 

First 

19 

3 

First 

II 

First 

20 

4 

First 

12 

First 

21 

4 

First 

13 

First 

22 

5 

First 

14 

First 

23 

6 

First 

IS 

2 

First 

24 

7 

First 

'Taken  from  Bull.  154  of  the  Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


436 


FORESTRY  IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


1 

1 

M 

^  ^^  ?=S  S  S-  J2^  {:;  ic  2  vS'  ^  Si  |:r  S  Ss"^  ?^  ?:  S;  gvS  ^  ^  S;g  ^  S^g§  8. 2 

M    M    CO  TT  >0  1^C30    O    <N    Tf  t^   O-  <N    ir^oO    w    tJ-OO    o  vO    O    ThoO    rOOO    roco    ro  o  lO  O  vO    rr, 

\2 

Tf  M    uo  to  M    rf   c/^oo    Ooo    fOThM    TtTfM    ro<NOO    Ooo    <N    co"    -^^O    fO<NOO    ooo    cs    ro 
t^    roO    OnO    <nvo    m    OI^OO    O    -^O^vC    iriirst^oo    (N    m    i-<    rovO    moOOO    t^O    lots    O 

M    -"^-'^°°o2;:'^<28??^g^;^^^^5:^;^ ^.S'S s Kc^^ ^ 8 ^ 

" 

OsCN     H    »OT)-0-0>-<tTt-0    O    t^OO    lO  t-  ^   t-.  -i-  t^MD     OOO    IN     (N    r^MO     M    <N  oo    O  >o  t^  ■*  VO 

M    H    <N    ro  ^O    C^OM    (N    Tj-t^O-N    Ttt^O    "^O    O    rr>  l^  M    lo  O  rtoO    fOOO    "500    rOOO 

MMMMI-l<S<N(NCOfOm,J-,^Tt»010   U-)0    O     t^  t^OO   00     OV   0> 

^ 

Tj-rct^tot^^Tj-ooo    MOO    O    loioOt^OO   t^<N    M    TtH    r/:)OOro>-i    ^i-i    M    r^\0    O^ 
O    M    t-w->^iot^O    ^  r-i    OO-O-.  H    ■:}•  OO    oo  IN    CO  >O00    ro  OnM3    lo^o  00    m  mD    in    OOO  00 

H    M    (N    fo  "d-  >o  J^oo    O    w    ro  >^00    O    <^i    i^ooo    M    ^t^O    Tt-r^M   loo  rooo    m    i^  m  o    m 

MIHMMMCN<N<NINrr>rO<^^-*'*lO>0  lOVO  ^O     t^  t^OO  OO     0> 

" 

O  lO  TJ-VO     MOOiOiNDOro  OOVO     IN     M     rOOO  >000<NOM-+MMTtOOlN    r^vo  00    M 
io0>0    ro<N    M    roioONTTOOO    t^r^O<s-0    moOvOO    t^OiN    t^coO    OOO    <NsO    mOO 

«MC..0^^Or.OMe.^.0=0M^O^^^J;^05^M    joco  ^    -  ^  JC  O  ^ 

S 

s;^  a^  s;^s  8  ^  ^  ?^  a^  ^  ?S  8  ^  s-  s^  a^  S  ^^  8  S  5  ^^  ?  ic 

M    IN    M    rO'tO    t^OO    O    M    ro>Of^OM    ^<3    O"    'i-r^O    rOt^O    t)-:-.w    LoO-^t^ 
MMMMHMININININrOCOrO^Tl-TtLOto  lOO  O   so     t^   !>. 

o 

C>  t^so  sot^OiNioOioiN    o  t^vo  >or^O<^>JlO>o<NO  r^O  ot^OwioOioi-iO 
^OO    ro  O^'^    -&  •*  -^-O  00    <N  ^o    <N    O  t^M3  MD  00    O    ^00    -^  O  00    t^  1^00    O    'tOO    •&   O  <X  O 

M     M     IN     CO  -+   >0>0    t^OO     M     COlOt^O"    Tj-so  CO     w     T)-0     O  IN    lo  O  <N    lo  O   rOO     O 
MMMMMM<NlNIN<NrOrorOCO^^^>0>0   lO  SO    >0     t^ 

. 

^  O  ro  t^  M    T)-00    H    ■*t--0    <N    rl-t^oO    «    ro  »D>0   t^  t^co  00  00  OO  OO  00   t^  r^O   to  iT)  M 

M    M    0.    coco^tor^oo    OM    ^.    ^;oj^OM    jojo^    O    cojo^M   ^^O   j^so    O^ 

« 

s$R^!;;^Sj;?^=s°s  s^i^^cS  ^^  ?ic^^^^  ;??rg>cS  ^  a?:ss  c;>?^;^ 

1-1     M     <N    IN     ro  T^  too    r^OO     OH     M    -^lOt^OM     fOtOt^OH     Tt-O     O  M     T)-  t^  o     ^o 
MHMHHMlNININININrOfOtv^rO'i-'ll-'^lOtOtO 

- 

^M    iot^t^ThO<N    <N    O    tOOO    O  t^  CO  J^OO    r^  -"too    O    OvO    H    co<OM\o    OOOO    'J-  J^OO 
roO    O  COOO    T^OOOvo    tO-^Tt-tot^O    cot^CMOO    '^M    OOO  00  00    O  H    coo    H    to  H    t-  Tf 

H    M    <N    to  CO  Tf  lOO    r^OO    O  H    <N    CO  >OvO  00    O    "    color^O<N    Tt-vO    O  M    tJ-O    O 

„„IHMMM^^(NCNO<<N<N^OCOCOCO^T^T^Tl- 

so 

O    <N     IN  OO     O     O  to  I^O     M     COHOOOO     O     H     OCO•^^M     10tO<N>00     M     lOtOM     tJ-COOh 
<N    tooo    MO    OO    IN    Ot^  to-+coco  Tl-O  00    O    TfOO    COOO    Tt-  M  OO  O    lO  ^t  Tf  too  00    O    rf 

M    M    0)    (N    CO  CO  Tf  too    t^OO    O  O    M    CO  T^  to  1^00    O    c^    cotot--Ow    coiOt^O    C< 

MMMMMMMlNPlCSOMOCOCOCOCOTi-Tt- 

. 

torfOOOO    TftOM    COO    COM    ton-OOOO    ^Tl-M    COO    com    ^^0000    cotM    COO    com    tJ- 
cs    rf  O    O  CO  t^  IN    1^   CO  OO    CO  M    ooo  0000    OO    <N    -^f^O    i^CO    roOtOCM    CJif^tO'S-co 

M    M    cs|    CI    coco-^lOOO    t^OO    OO    csi    co-^tot^OO    Om    cn    -^O    r^OM    coto 
MMMMMMMMCN<NCN04!N<NCOCOCO 

- 

O    to  to  O  t^  O    t^oo    Th  rf  ooo    M    O  M    t^oo    cor^o    -^t^Tl-toO    O   locot^  i*0    c^    co  t^ 

OOOOhmmcscspoco^^  too   t^  t^oo    O  O    m    cj    co  ■*  to  r-OO    O  O    <n    co  too  00 

S.J 

.2 

Q 

"1 

CO  •<t  >^0   t^oo    O  O    M    c^    CO  '^  too   t^oo    O  O    M    c^    CO  ^  too    t^oO    o  O    m    (n    co  -sj-  too 

TABLES 


437 


Tt  On  <N    Tj-  lO  On  ' 


Tl-CO    O    <N    roO    O 


lO  On  to 
»>->NO  00    On  1 


-CX5    On  On  O 


ro  -^  Th  lr>o  NO    t^OO 


lONO  OO    fO 

Tj-  lONO    t^ONw    <N    <N    rO<^^lO  lONO  NO    t^  t^OO    On  0>  O    O 


CXD    >0  T^  rOOO    M    On  rOOO 
M    ro  ■*  >o  VD  t^oO    On  On  O 


rO  fO  -^  ■«1-  lo  lONO  NO  NO    f^  t^oO 


Tj-  r^  T^  M   Tj-  vooo   (s   looo   (s   >ooo   oj   lo  on 
M    c<    ro  •^  •*  lONO   r^  t^  r^oo  OO  CO    On  On  0>  O 


to  ro  r^  Th 


OO'OO^OO'N   looo   O   c)   looo   O   oi   looo   O   ts   looo   O   <n   voo 
M    (N    (N    roro^ioiovo  vovo  no  no  no    t^  r^  t^  i^oO  00  OO  00    On  On  On  l 


r^  ^  t^  1-1  tN  00  lONO  00  O   5s   ro  »o  t^oo  O  ' 

O     M     l-l     (Nf     M     M    POPOPO't'itTf'^TfTfUll 


rf  On  M    ro  -^OO    <M    to  •*nO    r--00    On  O 
OOHI-l'-l'H«~»<N'N«<N<N<NrO 


(N    ionO   r--00    O 

6  6  6  6  6*^ 


438 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


VOLUME    TABLES. 

TABLE  XV. —  ASPEN, 1    MERCHANTABLE   VOLUME,'   IN 
CUBIC  FEET. 


Based  on  measurements  of  362  trees. 


Diameter,  out- 
side bark, 
breast  high. 

Height  of  tree  in  feet. 

30 

40 

so 

60 

70 

80 

90 

Volume  in  cubic  feet. 

5 

2.0 
3-5 
S-S 

I.O 

2-5 

4.0 
6.0 
8.0 
10.5 

1-5 
30 

4-5 
7.0 

95 
12.0 

150 
18.0 

2.0 

3-5 

II  .0 
14.0 
17.0 
20. s 

24.0 

28.5 

32.0 

37-0 
43 -o 

30 
4-5 
7.0 
10. 0 
12. S 
16.0 
19.0 
23.0 
27.0 
32.0 
37-0 
43  0 
49-5 
S7-0 
65.0 
74.0 

6.0 
8.5 
"•5 
14-5 
18.0 

21.5 
26. 5 
315 
370 
43  0 
50.0 
57. 0 
66.0 

84.0 

7 
8 

9 
10 

13.0 
16. 5 
20.0 
25.0 
30.0 
36.0 
43 -o 

12 

13 

15 
16 

59.0 
68.0 

17 
18 

76.0 
85.0 
95-0 

19 
20 

*  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bull.  93. 

'  Merchantable  volume  includes  that  portion  of  the  bole  between  a  stump  1  foot  high  and  a  min- 
imum upper  diameter  of  4  inches  inside  bark  and  all  branches  4  inches  and  over  inside  bark.  The 
volumes  do  not  include  bark. 


TABLES 


439 


TABLE  XVL  — ASPEN/  MERCHANTABLE  VOLUME,*  IN  CORDS 
AND   NUMBER  OF   TREES   PER   CORD. 

Based  on  measurements  of  362  trees. 


Height  of  tree  in  feet. 

Diameter, 
breast  high. 

30 

40 

50 

Volume. 

Trees  per 
cord. 

Volume. 

Trees  per 
cord. 

Volume. 

Trees  per 

Inches. 

5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

Cords. 

O.OI 

■03 

■05 

.08 

Number. 

100. 0 
33-3 
20.0 
12. 5 

Cords. 
0.02 
.04 
.06 
.09 
.11 
•14 

Number. 
50.0 
25.0 
16.7 
II  .  I 
9.1 
71 

Cords. 
0.03 

•OS 
.07 
.10 
.12 
•15 
.18 
.21 

Number. 

33-3 

20.0 

14.3 

10. 0 

8.3 

6.7 

5-6 

4.8 

Height  of  tree  in  feet. 

Diameter, 

breast 
high. 

60 

70 

80 

90 

Volume. 

Trees  per 
cord. 

Volume. 

Trees  per 
cord. 

Volume. 

Trees  per 
cord. 

Volume. 

Trees  per 
cord. 

Inches. 

5 
6 

Cords. 

0.03 
.06 
.08 
.11 
•14 
.18 
.20 
•24 
•27 
•31 

Number. 

33-3 

16.7 

12. S 

9.1 

7-1 

5-6 

S-o 

4-2 

3-7 

3-2 

Cords. 

Number. 

Cords. 

Number. 

Cords. 

Number. 

0.07 
.10 
■14 
.16 
.20 
■23 
•27 
•30 
■35 
•39 
•44 

14-3 
10. 0 
7-1 
6.3 
S-o 
4-3 
3-7 
3-3 
2.9 
2.6 

2-3 

O.IO 

•13 
.16 
.19 
•23 
.26 

•31 
•35 
•40 
■45 
•52 
•57 
•6S 

10. 0 

7-7 
6^3 
5-3 
4-3 
3-8 
32 
2.9 

2-5 

2  .2 
1.9 
1.8 
1-5 

7 
8 

9 
10 
II 
12 
13 
14 
IS 
16 

0.25 
•30 
•34 
.40 
.46 
■53 
.60 
.68 

-.11 

•90 

4.0 
3-3 
2.9 

2^5 
2.2 
1.9 

1^7 
15 
1-3 

'I 

19 

1  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bull.  93- 

2  See  footnote  2  under  Table  XV. 


440 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


TABLE  XVII.  — PAPER  BIRCH.i  MERCHANTABLE  VOLUMES,  BY 
DIAMETER  AND  HEIGHT. 

Based  on  measurements  of  445  trees. 


Height  of  tree  in  feet. 

Diam- 

eter, 
breast 
high. 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

eter, 
inside 
bark 

of  top. 

Volume 

Inches. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd.  ft.2 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd. 

ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd. 

ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd. 

ft. 

Inches. 

5 

2.7 

16 

3-2 

19 

3-7 

23 



3-3 

6 

.S.8 

22 

4.6 

26 

5 

4 

30 

6.2 

35 

3 

7 

7 

5-2 

28 

6.3 

34 

7 

3 

40 

8.5 

46 

9 

6 

52 

4 

2 

8 

6.8 

38 

8.2 

45 

0 

5 

52 

II. 0 

60 

12 

4 

68 

4 

5 

9 

8.7 

48 

10.4 

57 

12 

2 

67 

14.0 

76 

15 

5 

86 

4 

8 

10 

10.9 

60 

13.0 

72 

15 

2 

«S 

17-4 

95 

19 

3 

108 

5 

I 

II 

13-4 

73 

16.0 

88 

18 

8 

104 

21.4 

117 

24 

0 

132 

5 

3 

12 

16.3 

88 

I9-S 

106 

22 

8 

124 

26.1 

141 

29 

3 

160 

5 

5 

13 

19.8 

106 

23 -3 

127 

27 

3 

148 

31-3 

169 

35 

0 

191 

5 

6 

14 
15 
16 

27.7 
32. 5 

150 

177 

32 
37 
43 
50 

3 

8 

T7f) 

37.0 
43-2 
50.0 
58.0 

201 

41 

5 
S 
3 
9 

9?6 

5 
5 
6 

8 

207 

236 
076 

18 

-566 

9 
0 

206 

8 

242 

56 
^1 

310 
360 
412 

17 
18 

3 

080 

320 
366 

6 

T 

320 

6 

>  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Circular  163. 
«  New  Hampshire  rule. 


TABLES 


441 


TABLE    XVIIL  — PAPER    BIRCH/   MERCHANTABLE    VOLUMES, 
BY  DIAMETER  AND  MERCHANTABLE   LENGTH. 

Based  on  measurements  of  396  trees. 


Merchantable  length  in  feet. 

Diam- 
eter, 

breast 
high. 

12 

16 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

Volume. 

Inches. 

Cu. 
ft. 

Bd. 

ft. 

Cu. 

ft. 

Bd. 

ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd. 

ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd. 

ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd. 

ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd. 

ft. 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

10 

1-7 
2.4 

3-3 
4.2 
5-3 

7 
12 

17 
23 
29 
35 

2.0 
2.9 
3-9 

5-2 

6.6 
8.1 

10 
16 
21 
28 
34 
41 
49 

2.3 
3-4 
4.6 
6.0 

7-5 
9.2 
II. 0 

13 
19 
25 

32 
40 
48 
56 

2.6 
3-9 
5-3 
6.8 

8.5 
10.3 
12.2 

15 

22 

29 

37 
46 
55 
64 
73 

2.9 
4-3 
5-9 
7.6 

9-5 
ii-S 
13-5 
15-7 

18 
25 
33 
42 
51 
61 
71 
82 

3-2 
4.8 
6.5 
8.4 
IO-5 
12.7 
I5-0 
I7-5- 
20.1 

21 

28 

37 
47 
57 
68 
80 
92 
105 
118 

5-4 
7.2 
9.2 
II. 4 
13.8 
16.4 
19.2 
22.7 
27.0 

31 
41 
52 
64 
76 
89 
103 

13 
14 

138 

Merchantable  length  in  feet 

Diam- 

eter, 

40 

44 

48 

52 

S6 

60 

breast 

Volume. 

Inches. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd. 

ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd. 

ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd. 

ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd. 

ft. 

5 
6 

"5.8' 

35 

"6.3' 

7.0 

... 

7 

7.9 

8.4 

49 

9-3 
II. 6 

'4 

9.9 
12.4 

57 
72 

8 

10. 0 

57 

10.8 

62 

13.2 

76 

14.0 

80 

9 

12.3 

69 

133 

75 

14.2 

81 

15.  2 

86 

16. 1 

92 

17. 1 

99 

10 

14.9 

83 

16.0 

90 

17.2 

97 

18.4 

104 

19.4 

III 

20.6 

118 

II 

17.8 

97 

193 

107 

20.7 

115 

22.2 

124 

23.6 

134 

25.2 

142 

12 

21.0 

114 

23.0 

125 

24.8 

137 

26.7 

148 

28.6 

160 

30.6 

168 

13 

24.9 

133 

27.4 

146 

29.8 

160 

32.3 

174 

34-9 

187 

37-5 

200 

14 

30.0 

154 

33  0 

170 

35-9 

185 

39-1 

201 

41-5 

Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Circular  163. 


442 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


TABLE   XIX.  — PAPER   BIRCH/    SOLID   CONTENTS    PER 

STACKED   CORD   FOR   SPOOLWOOD   BOLTS   OF 

DIFFERENT  DIAMETERS,  IN  THE  ROUND. 


Average  diam- 
eter of  stick. 

Sticks  per 
cord. 

Solid  wood  per 
cord. 

Average  diam- 
eter of  stick. 

Sticks  per 
cord. 

Solid  wood  per 
cord. 

Inches. 

Number. 

Cubic  feet. 

Inches. 

Number. 

Cubic  feet. 

S 
6 

7 
8 

135 
io6 

8S 
6o 

82.0 
86.7 
91.4 
96.0 

9 
10 
II 

12 

57 
47 
39 
32 

100. 0 
102.8 
104.6 
105.2 

Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Circular  163. 


TABLE   XX. —  CHESTNUT  VOLUME   TABLE   FOR   SPROUT 
TREEvS.i   PISGAH,    NEW   HAMPSHIRE. 

Based  on  measurements  of  658  trees. 


Height  in  feet. 

Diameter, 

breast  high, 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

in  inches. 

Vo 

lume  of  used  length,  including  bark 

,  in  cubic  feet. 

8 

7-7 
10. 0 

8.5 
II .  I 

9-7 
130 

9 

14.4 

10 

12.4 

14. 1 

16.4 

18.0 

II 

15.0 

17-3 

20.0 

22.0 

25-4 

12 

18.0 

20.9 

24.0 

26. s 

30.2 

13 

21. 1 

24.7 

28.0 

31.0 

35-1 

14 

24.4 

28.3 

32.0 

35-7 

40.0 

15 

28.0 

32.7 

36-5 

40.6 

451 

16 

32.0 

36.8 

41 .0 

45-6 

50-3 

17 

36.0 

40.8 

45-9 

50.8 

56.1 

18 

39-9 

45-0 

510 

56.1 

62.0 

19 

43-7 

49-5 

56.4 

62.0 

68.3 

54.0 

62.0 

68.0 

74.8 

68.1 

74-4 

81.3 

'  Taken  from  Biennial  Report  of  the  New  Hampshire  Forestry  Commission  for  1905-1906. 


TABLES 


443 


TABLE  XXL  — CHESTNUT!  VOLUME   TABLE   IN   CUBIC   FEET, 
LITCHFIELD   AND   MIDDLESEX   COUNTIES,  CONNECTICUT.^ 

Based  on  measurements  of  218  trees. 


Diameter, 
breast 
high. 

Height  of  tree 

n  feet. 

20 

30 

40 

so 

60 

70 

80 

90 

Volume  in  cubic  feet. 

0.2 
•4 

0.3 

•  7 

1.2 

1.9 

3 

0.9 

1.6 

2.6 

3-7 

S-o 

6.5 

8.4 

IO-5 

12.8 

iS-4 

18.2 

2.1 

3-3 
4.6 
6.2 

7-9 
10. 1 
12. 5 
153 
18.4 
19.7 
25.0 
28.8 
32.6 

36. s 

40.5 
44-3 
49.0 

S 
6 

S-6 
7-3 
9-4 
II. 8 
I4-S 
17.9 

21-5 

25.2 
29.2 
33.6 
38.1 
42.7 
47-4 
51-4 
58.5 
65.0 
71.0 
78.0 
85-5 
93-0 

7 
8 

II. 0 
13.6 
16.6 
20.7 
25.0 
29.1 
33-8 
38.8 
44.0 
49-5 
55-5 
61.5 
68.5 

75-5 
83.0 
91 .0 

99-5 
108.5 

9 

17.8 
22.6 
27.4 
32.1 
37.7 
43-4 
49-5 
56.0 
63.0 
70.0 
78.0 
86.0 
950 
104.0 
114. 0 
124.0 

19.0 

24-3 
30.0 

35-3 
41-3 
48.0 

5S-0 
63.0 

70-S 

79.0 

85.0 

97.0 

106.5 

117. 0 

1^8  0 

13 
14 
IS 
16 

17 
18 

19 

24 
25 

140.0 

Volumes  include  stem  and  topwood,  with  bark,  up  to  a  minimum  diameter  of  2  inches.     Average 
stump  heights  vary  from  6  inches  for  small  trees  to  21  inches  for  large  ones. 

1  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bull.  96. 

2  For  volume  of  trees  under  8  inches  diameter,  breast  high,  twenty-one  measurements  made  in 
190S  at  Hyde  Park,  N.  Y.,  by  Mr.  J.  G.  Peters,  were  combined  with  those  made  in  Connecticut. 


444 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


TABLE  XXIL  — CHESTNUT  1  VOLUME  TABLE  IN  BOARD  FEET^ 
LITCHFIELD  COUNTY,  CONNECTICUT. 

By  International  2  Log  Rule.     Based  on  measurements  of  ii8  trees. 


Height  of  tree  in  feet. 

Diam- 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

Diam- 
eter 
(inside 

breast 

high. 

l?ark) 
of  top. 

Stem. 

Top- 
wood. 

Stem. 

Top- 
wood., 

Stem. 

Top- 
wood. 

Stem. 

Top- 
wood. 

Stem. 

Top- 
wood. 

Inches. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Inches. 

9 

10 

^8 

M 

6.Q 

22 

8.0 

7 

lO 

26 

5-2 

32 

6.2 

40 

I 

48 

6.9 

56 

6.6 

7 

II 

42 

4-9 

50 

6.2 

50 

2 

69 

7.2 

80 

7.0 

8 

12 

ss 

4.« 

68 

6.1 

78 

3 

92 

7-5 

107 

7-7 

8 

13 

74 

4-7 

87 

6.1 

100 

5 

116 

7.6 

133 

7.8 

8 

14 

92 

4.6 

107 

6.2 

122 

6 

141 

8.4 

160 

8.6 

8 

15 

no 

4-9 

127 

6.6 

147 

8 

2 

168 

9.0 

190 

9.8 

9 

16 

129 

5-1 

150 

6.9 

172 

8 

7 

196 

10. 0 

222 

II-3 

9 

17 
18 

174 
198 
223 
250 
276 
30s 
333 
363 
396 

6.9 
6.9 
6.9 
7-1 
7-9 
7-9 
8.5 
9.2 
9-7 

200 

9 
10 

3 

n 

226 

II .  2 

255 
291 
328 
368 
409 
451 

493 
538 
583 

13s 
150 
17.0 
19.2 
21.4 
23-7 

9 
10 

227 
257 
^88 

257 
292 

327 
363 

12.6 

19 

20 

10 

4 
6 

13-6 

15-2 

16.8 

10 

1 1 

10 

21 

318 
350 

385 

1 2 

13 
15 
t6 

19. 1 
21.3 
24-3 

23 
24 
25 

27.0 

8 

479 
520 

31.0 
35.8 

457 

t8 

7 

Note.  ^  The  volume  in  "topwood"  (top  and  branches)  was  obtained  by  subtracting  the  aggre- 
gate cubic  volume  of  sawlogs  to  a  top  diameter  of  6  inches,  inside  bark,  from  the  total  used  volume 
of  the  tree,  in  cubic  feet  (to  a  minimum  diameter  of  2  inches,  outside  bark). 

'  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bull.  96. 
2  Ten  per  cent  deducted  for  circular  saw  kerf. 


TABLES 


445 


TABLE   XXIIL— CHESTNUT!  VOLUME   TABLE   IN   TIES, 
LITCHFIELD   COUNTY,   CONNECTICUT. 


Height  of  tree  in  feet. 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

Diam- 

breast 
high. 

Volume. 

Ties. 

Top- 
wood. 

Ties. 

Top- 
wood. 

Ties. 

Top- 
wood. 

Ties. 

Top- 
wood. 

Ties. 

J»?. 

Basis. 

Inches. 

No. 

Cu.  ft. 

No. 

Cu.  ft. 

No. 

Cu.  ft. 

No. 

Cu.  ft. 

No. 

Cu.  ft. 

Trees. 

lO 

I 

9.0 

I 

10  3 

I 

II. I 

I 

lO-S 

3 

9-5 

4 

II 

I 

8.2 

I 

9 

6 

2 

10 

7 

2 

10.4 

4 

9 

8 

9 

12 

2 

7-5 

2 

0 

3 

10 

4 

3 

10.3 

4 

10 

I 

9 

13 

3 

6.9 

3 

8 

3 

3 

9 

7 

4 

10. 0 

5 

10 

2 

II 

14 

3 

6.2 

3 

7 

8 

.=; 

9 

4 

5 

10. 0 

8 

10 

3 

17 

IS 

5 

6.1 

5 

7 

6 

5 

9 

3 

6 

10. 0 

9 

10 

7 

6 

16 

6 

6.0 

6 

7 

2 

7 

9 

I 

7 

10.2 

9 

II 

2 

14 

17 
18 

6 

A 

7 

8 

Q 

0 

8 

10.7 

10 

12 

7 

6 

7 
7 
8 

S 
5 
5 
5 
4 
4 
4 
4 

9 
6 

8 

9 
9 
9 
10 

9 
10 

ii-S 

12. I 

II 

IS 

■^ 

II 

19 

8 

12 

1=; 

S 

6 

9 

13-5 
14-7 

13 

17 

S 

4 

9 

T 

10 

11 

14 

10 

4 

3 

s 

4 
7 
9 

9 

8 

14 
14 
15 
18 

16.8 

T7 

21 

8 

4 

23 
24 
25 

18.8 

Z'^ 

2 

5 

13 
15 

13 
14 

21.6 

19 

29 
34 

I 

2 

16 

8 

24.4 

0 

All  first-class  ties  —  6"X8"X8'. 

iVo/e. — The  volume  in  "topwood"  (top  and  branches)  was  obtained  by  subtracting  the  aggre- 
gate cubic  volume  of  tie  logs  to  a  minimum  top  diameter  of  9  inches,  outside  bark,  from  the  total 
used  volume  of  the  tree,  in  cubic  feet  (to  a  minimum  diameter  of  2  inches,  outside  bark). 

I  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bull.  96. 


446 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


TABLE   XXIV.  — RED    OARi   VOLUME   TABLE   IN    CUBIC   FEET 
AND   BOARD   FEET,    SOUTHERN   NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 


Based  on  measurements  of  683  trees. 


Used  length  in  feet. 

Num- 

Diam- 

ber of 

eter, 

board 

breast 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

feet  per 

high. 

cubic 

foot  of 

Volume. 

log. 

Inches. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd.  ft.2 

Cu.ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

5 

T 

7 

7 

2.3 
3-2 

4.  7 

3   f, 

6 

2 

9 

14 

IS 

22 

7 

2 

0 

6.0 

29 

7-5 
9.2 
II  .4 

34 
43 
58 
73 

4 
8 

8 

•^ 

6 

18 

6.0 

30 

7.5 

39 

9 

/\ 

6 

25 

7.5 

40 

9.4 

48 

I 

10 

5 

7 

31 

9.1 

SO 

II-3 

60 

13.8 

17-4 

99 

4 

II 

7 

0 

37 

II. 0 

b3 

139 

74 

16.4 

90 

20.5 

118 

s 

12 

8 

3 

44 

I3-I 

7« 

lb. 3 

89 

I9-S 

no 

23 -9 

143 

7 

13 

9 

5 

54 

IS -7 

93 

19.2 

107 

22.9 

132 

27.4 

174 

8 

14 

II 

I 

OS 

18.3 

109 

22.2 

126 

26.5 

160 

31.8 

208 

5 

9 

IS 

21.2 

124 

25.8 

149 

30.7 

190 

3b.  I 

243 

6 

I 

16 

24.2 

143 

29.2 

173 

3S-0 

225 

41.2 

288 

6 

2 

17 

27.8 

163 

33-3 

201 

39-9 

262 

46.8 

330 

6 

4 

18 

31.2 

181 

37. « 

232 

45  0 

308 

53 -o 

378 

6 

6 

19 

34-9 

202 

42.0 

265 

.50.7 

3.50 

,59-3 

428 

6 

8 

20 



223 

300 

50.7 

405 

478 

7 

0 

Ave 

rage 

5 

57 

Taken  from  Biennial  Report  of  the  New  Hampshire  Forestry  Commission  for  i9os-igo6. 
'  Actual  mill  cut  in  i^-inch  round-edged  boards,  allowing  J-inch  for  drying  and  dressing. 


TABLES 


447 


TABLE  XXV.  — RED,  BLACK  AND  SCARLET  OAKSi  VOLUME 

TABLE  IN  CUBIC  FEET,  NEW  LONDON  COUNTY, 

CONNECTICUT;  HYDE  PARK,  NEW  YORK.= 

Based  on  measurements  of  441  trees. 


Height  of  tree  in  feet. 

Diameter, 
breast 
high. 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60                 70 

80 

inches. 

Volume  in  cubic  feet. 

2 

0.3 

0.4 

■9 

1-5 

2.4 



3 

4 

1 .0 
2.0 
2.8 

4-2 

5-7 
7.0 
8.7 
IO-5 
13.0 
16.4 
21.0 

25-3 
30.2 

2.6 
3-6 
50 
6.6 

8.5 
10.9 

13 -I 
16.0 
19.7 
24-3 
29.0 
34-2 
40.0 

6.0 
7.6 
10.  2 
13.0 
15-7 
19.0 
22.3 
27.7 
32.6 
38.1 
44.1 

7 
8 

8.9 
12.0 

15-2 

18.4 
22.1 
26.2 
31.0 

36.3 
42.0 
48.2 
54.6 
61.0 
68.0 

9 
10 

17-3 
21  0 

II 

25.2 
293 
34-3 
40.0 
45.8 
52.4 
59-1 
66  0 

12 

13 
14 
IS 
16 

17 
18 



19 

74.0 

Volumes  include  stem  and  topwood,  with  bark,  up  to  a  minimum  diameter  of  2  inches.     Average 
stump  heights  vary  from  5  inches  for  small  trees  to  21  inches  for  large  ones. 

'  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bull.  g6. 
2  Volumes  for  trees  under  9  inches  diameter,  breast  1 
Hyde  Park,  New  York,  by  Mr.  J.  G.  Peters. 


1,  are  from  measurements  made  in  1905  at 


448 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


TABLE  XXVL  — RED,   BLACK   AND    SCARLET   OAKSi   VOLUME 

TABLE   IN   BOARD   FEET,   NEW   LONDON   COUNTY, 

CONNECTICUT. 

By  International  Log^  Rule.     Based  on  measurements  of  175  trees. 


Height  of 

tree  in  feet. 

Diameter, 
breast 
high. 

50 

60 

70 

80 

Diameter 

(inside 

bark)  of 

top. 

Volume. 

Stem. 

Top- 
wood. 

Stem. 

Top- 
wood. 

Stem. 

Top- 
wood. 

Stem. 

Top- 
wood. 

Inches. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Inches. 

9 
10 
II 
12 

14 
24 

35 
48 

6.4 
6.8 
7-5 
8.5 

17 
30 
45 
60 

8.0 

8.2 

8.8 
9-4 

21 
38 
56 
75 

9,6 

7 
7 
8 
8 

9 
9 
10 

7 
8 
2 

49 
68 
89 

IO-5 
IO-5 
10.6 

13 

62 

lO.I 

77 

10.8 

94 

10 

9 

113 

10.9 

8 

14 

78 

II. 4 

9b 

II. 9 

117 

II 

9 

140 

II. 7 

9 

IS 
16 

95 

114 

12.9 
14.9 

117 
140 

133 
151 

141 
168 

13 
14 

0 

2 

168 
198 

12 . 1 
12.9 

9 
9 

17 
18 

19s 
224 
254 

15 
t6 

t. 
9 
7 

229 
263 
300 

134 
139 
15-5 

10 

19 

t8 

10 

Note.  —  The  volume  in  "topwood"  (top  and  branches)  was  obtained  by  subtracting  the  aggregate 
cubic  volume  of  tie  logs  to  a  minimum  top  diameter  of  9  inches,  outside  bark,  from  the  total  used 
volume  of  the  tree,  in  cubic  feet  (to  a  minimum  diameter  of  2  inches,  outside  bark). 


1  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bull.  96. 

2  Ten  per  cent  deducted  for  circular  saw  kerf. 


TABLES 


449 


TABLE  XXVIL  — RED,  BLACK  AND   SCARLET  OAKSi  VOLUME 
TABLE   IN   TIES. 

Based  on  measurements  of  159  trees. 


Height  of  tree  in  feet. 

Diameter, 

50 

60 

70 

80 

breast 
high. 

Volume. 

Basis. 

Ties. 

Top- 
wood. 

Ties. 

Top- 
wood. 

Ties. 

TOP- 

wood. 

Tie?. 

Top- 
wood. 

Inches. 

No. 

Cu.  ft. 

No. 

Cu.  ft. 

No. 

Cu.  ft. 

No. 

Cu.  ft. 

Trees. 

10 

I 

8.4 

I 

10.8 

I 

12.9 

I 

15-0 

24 

II 

I 

9.0 

I 

10.8 

2 

12.6 

2 

14.2 

35 

12 

2 

9.8 

2 

II. I 

2 

12.6 

3 

13 -I 

33 

13 

2 

II. I 

2 

12.2 

3 

12.7 

4 

12.5 

30 

14 

2 

12.3 

4 

I3-0 

S 

13  I 

5 

12.4 

13 

15 

4 

13-7 

4 

14.0 

5 

13 -5 

7 

12.2 

12 

16 

4 

15-7 

4 

153 

6 

14.2 

7 

12. I 

5 

17 
18 

, 

7 
8 

14.6 
14.8 

IS-2 

8 

4 
2 

II-5 
II. 8 

19 

8 

II 

.\1I  first-class  ties  —  6'  X  S'X  8'. 


Note.  —  The  volume  in  "topwood"  (top  and  branches)  was  obtained  by  .subtracting  the  aggre- 
gate cubic  volume  of  tie  logs  to  a  minimum  top  diameter  of  9  inches,  outside  bark,  from  the  total 
used  volume  of  the  tree,  in  cubic  feet  (to  a  minimum  diameter  of  2  inches,  outside  bark). 

'  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bull.  96. 


450 


FORESTRY   IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


TABLE  XXVIIL  — SECOND-GROWTH  WHITE  OAK^   VOLUME  OF 
CORD   WOOD  IN   CUBIC  FEET,  HYDE  PARK,  NEW  YORK.» 

Based  on  measurements  of  349  trees. 


Height  of  tree  in  feet. 

Diameter, 
breast  high, 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

Volume  of  cord  wood  in  cubic  feet.' 

0.2 

■5 
•9 

.8 
1-4 

2-3 

3-4 
4.8 

3 
4 
5 
6 

I .  I 

18 

2.7 
4.0 

5-7 
7-7 

3-2 
4.8 
6.6 
9.0 
II. 8 

15-3 
19.6 
24.6 

5-7 

7-9 

10.6 

7 
8 

9 

136 
17-3 
22.6 

28.0 

13 

32.2 

>  Measurements  by  T-  G.  Peters  of  the  U.  S  Forest  Service  in  1905. 

2  This  table  may  be  used  for  other  second-growth  hardwoods  to  be  cut  into  cord  wood. 

'  These  volumes  include  all  the  tree  that  may  be  utilized  for  cord  wood  down  to  i  inch  in  diameter. 
A  cord  made  up  of  mixed  diameters  of  second-growth  wood  is  considered  to  contain  80  cubic  feet  ol 
solid  wood,  and  this  table  can  be  reduced  to  cords  by  dividing  by  80. 


TABLES 


451 


TABLE    XXIX.  — WHITE     AND     CHESTNUT     OAKS  1      VOLUME 

TABLE   IN   CUBIC  FEET,    NEW   LONDON    COUNTY, 

CONNECTICUT;   HYDE   PARK,    NEW   YORK.2 

Based  on  measurements  of  293  trees. 


Diameter, 
breast 
high. 

Height  of  tree  in  feet. 

20 

30 

40 

so 

60 

70 

80 

Volume  in  cubic  feet. 

2 

0-3 

0.4 

■9 
i-S 
2.4 

3 
4 
5 

6 

I.O 

2.0 
2.9 

4-2 

5-7 

7-4 

9-3 

II. 2 

133 
15-7 

2.6 

3-6 
5-0 
6.6 
8.7 
II. I 
13 -7 
16.5 
19-3 
22.4 

25-9 

6.0 
7.6 
10.3 
13-5 
16.5 
19.8 
23.1 
26.9 
310 
35-5 
40.5 

7 
8 

8.9 
12.2 
16.0 

19-5 
23.2 
27.2 
31-5 
36.3 
41-7 
47 -S 

9 
10 

18.9 

22.6 

11 

26.8 

12 

31 .4 

13 
14 
IS 
16 

36.3 
41.6 

48.1 

SS-o 

Volumes  include  stem  and  topwood,  with  bark,  up  to  a  minimum  diameter  of  2  inches.     Average 
stump  heights  vary  from  6  inches  for  small  trees  to  21  inches  for  large  ones. 

1  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Ser\^ice  Bull.  96. 

2  Volumes  for  trees  under  9  inches  diameter,  breast  high,  are  from  measurements  made  in  1905 
at  Hyde  Park,  New  York,  by  Mr.  J.  G.  Peters. 


452 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


TABLE  XXX.  — WHITE  AND   CHESTNUT  OAKSi  VOLUME 

TABLE   IN   BOARD   FEET,    LITCHFIELD    COUNTY, 

CONNECTICUT. 

By  International^  Log  Rule.     Based  on  measurements  of  26  trees. 


Height  of  tree  in  fee 

Diameter, 
breast 
high. 

50 

60 

70 

Diameter 

(inside 

Volume. 

bark)  of 
top. 

Stem. 

Topwood. 

Stem. 

Topwood. 

Stem. 

Topwood. 

Inches. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Inches. 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

18 
29 
41 
56 
72 
90 

6.3 
6.3 
6.3 
6.3 
6.1 
6.1 

23 

36 

50 

66 

84 

104 

126 

149 

7-7 
7.8 
S.x 
8.2 

8.5 
8.6 
8.9 
9-4 

30 

47 
66 

85 
107 
130 
156 
180 

9.2 
9-4 
9-4 
9-5 
9-7 
9.9 
10.3 
10.8 

7 
8 
8 
8 
9 
9 
9 
9 

Note.  —  The  volume  in  "topwood"  (top  and  branches)  v 
cubic  volume  of  tie  logs  to  a  minimum  top  diameter  of  g 
volume  of  tree,  in  cubic  feet  (to  a  minimum  diameter  of  2 

'  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bull.  96. 

-  Ten  per  cent  deducted  for  circular  saw  kerf. 


'as  obtained  by  subtracting  the  aggregate 
inches,  outside  bark,  from  the  total  used 
inches,  outside  bark). 


TABLE     XXXI.  — WHITE     AND     CHESTNUT     OAKS^      VOLUME 

TABLE   IN   TIES,    NEW   LONDON   COUNTY,    CONNECTICUT. 

Based  on  measurements  of  25  trees. 


Height  of  tree  in  feet. 


Diameter, 

breast  high, 

in  inches. 


Topwood. 


Cu.  ft. 

9-7 
9.2 
8.9 
7.2 
5-6 


Topwood. 


Cu.  ft. 
II. 7 

ii-S 
10.9 

9-7 
8.7 


Top\\ 

ood. 

Cu. 

ft. 

14 

13 

12 

II 

II 

10 

6 

10 

3 

All  first-class  ties  —  6"X8'XS'. 

Note.  — The  volume  in  "topwood"  (top  and  branches)  was  obtained  by  subtracting  the  aggre- 
gate cubic  volume  of  tie  logs  to  a  minimum  top  diameter  of  9  inches,  outside  bark,  from  the  total  used 
volume  of  the  tree,  in  cubic  feet  (to  a  minimum  diameter  of  2  inches,  outside  bark). 

1  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bull.  96. 


TABLES 


453 


TABLE  XXXIL  — CORDWOOD   CONVERTING   FACTORS.i 

Converting  factors  for  second-growth  hardwoods,  by  D.B.H.  classes, 
with  corresponding  diameters  of  the  average  four-foot  stick  in  the  tree  or 
in  the  stack.  With  the  aid  of  this  table  the  volume  in  cords  of  single  trees 
can  be  secured  by  dividing  the  volumes  in  cubic  feet  given  in  tables  XXI, 
XXV  and  XXIX  by  the  "cubic  feet  per  cord  "  values  given  in  this  table 
for  a  tree  of  the  same  diameter,  breast  high.  If  it  is  desired  to  convert  the 
contents  in  cubic  feet  of  an  entire  stand  into  cords,  the  average  diameter, 
breast  high,  of  all  the  trees  in  the  stand  should  be  found,  and  the  "  cubic 
feet  per  cord  "  value  corresponding  to  this  diameter  should  be  used. 

While  these  converting  factors  are  intended  especially  for  chestnut  and 
oaks  they  can  be  used  safely  with  other  hardwoods. 


Chestnut. 

Black  Oaks. 

White 

Oaks. 

niomA+^r 

i-ZldincLcr, 

breast 

high. 

Diameter, 

Cubic  feet  2 

Diameter, 

Cubic  feet 

Diameter, 

Cubic  feet 

average  stick. 

per  cord. 

average  stick- 

per  cord. 

average 
stick. 

per  cord. 

I 

0-9 
1.8 

2 

""63    " 

....^.^... 

""e's" 

I 

8 

■■■63'" 

3 

2.6 

70 

2.5 

69 

2 

5 

69 

4 

3-3 

75 

31 

74 

3 

I 

74 

5 

4.0 

79 

3-6 

77 

3 

5 

76 

6 

4-7 

83 

41 

80 

3 

9 

79 

7 

5-2 

85 

4-5 

82 

4 

2 

81 

8 

5-8 

88 

4.8 

84 

4 

5 

82 

9 

6.2 

89 

50 

85 

4 

7 

83 

lO 

6.7 

91 

5-3 

86 

4 

9 

84 

II 

7.0 

92 

5-4 

86 

5 

0 

85 

12 

7-4 

93 

5-6 

87 

5 

I 

85 

13 

7-7 

94 

5-7 

88 

5 

2 

85 

14 

7-9 

94 

5-7 

88 

5 

2 

85 

15 

8.2 

95 

5.8 

88 

5 

3 

86 

i6 

8.4 

95 

5-9 

88 

5 

4 

86 

17 

8.5 

95 

5-9 

88 

i8 

8.7 

95 

6.0 

89 

19 

8.9 

96 

6.0 

89 

20 

9.0 

96 

21 

9.2 

96 

22 

9-3 

96 

23 

9-5 

97 

24 

9.6 

97 

25 

9-7 

97 

26 

9.8 

97 

27 

10. 0 

97 

28 

10. 1 

97 

29 

10.2 

97 

3° 

10.3 

97 

31 

10.4 

97 

32 

10.6 

98 

1 

'  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bull.  96. 


Solid  cubic  feet. 


454 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


TABLE   XXXIIL  — HEMLOCK.i     VOLUME   IN   BOARD   FEET, 
SOUTHERN   NEW   HAMPSHIRE. 


Height  of  tree  in  feet. 

breast 
high, 

3o 

40 

so 

60     1       70 

Board  feet 
per  I  cubic 
foot  of  log. 

Diameter 
of  last  log 
inside  bark. 

Basis. 

Volume  in  board  feet.2 

6 

S 
lO 

17 

26 

36 
47 
60 

Number. 

Inches. 

Trees. 
4 
17 
40 
57 
57 

41 
42 
17 
14 
14 

6 
8 

7 
8 

9 

lO 

II 

12 

13 
14 
IS 
i6 

17 

20 

28 

36 

46 

58 

72 

88 

107 

126 

148 

30 

39 

49 

59 

72 

86 

104 

125 

148 

171 

197 

42 

50 

60 

71 

86 

103 

124 

147 

172 

200 

233 

""86" 
103 
123 
148 
173 
204 
240 
281 

5 
5 
S 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
6 
6 

0 
3 
5 
6 
6 
7 
7 
8 
9 
I 
2 

4 
5 
5 
5 
5 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 

5 

7 

317 

>  Measurements  by  L.  Margolin,  U.  S.  Forest  Service  in  cooperation  with  the  state  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, New  Hampshire  Forestry  Report,  1905-1906. 

2  Actually  cut  out  with  a  circular  saw.  One-half  of  cut  went  into  scantling  and  the  other  half 
into  I -inch  boards. 


TABLES 


455 


TABLE  XXXIV.  — HEMLOCK.     VOLUME   IN   BOARD   FEET, 
VERMONT   RULE. 

Based  on  400  trees. 


Diameter, 
breast 

Total  height  of  tree  in  feet. 

high, 
in  inches. 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

8 

a' 

53 

9 

SI 
<5(5 

60 

76 

66 
74 

81 
93 
118 
140 
160 

120 

153 
180 
214 
248 

1^3 
13^ 
160 

185 

132 
217 

13 
15 

241 

284 

16 

214 
250 
293 
335 
380 

248 
283 
330 
372 
415 

282 
317 
364 
408 
454 

320 
360 
405 
450 
498 

17 
18 

454 

Hot 

19 

5C0 

545 

21 

455 
491 
520 

497 
540 
582 
626 
675 

545 
594 
650 
712 
777 

590 

22 

650 

23 
24 
25 

710 

780 

836 

26 

742 
790 

840 

897 

97l 

1040 

1100 

906 
968 
1040 
1100 

27 

28 

29 
30 

The  figures  underscored  indicate  the  average  height  of  the  trees  in  each  diameter  class. 


456 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


TABLE  XXXV.  — WHITE  PINE.i     VOLUME   IN   BOARD   FEET, 
SOUTHERN   NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 


Diam- 

Height of  tree  in  feet. 

eter, 
breast 
high,  in 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

no 

120 

Basis. 

inches. 

Volume  in  board  feet.2 

5 
6 

8 

13 
18 
24 
32 
41 

12 
20 
28 
36 

44 
53 
63 
73 
84 
95 

15 

23 

34 

45 

56 

70 

84 

100 

117 

137 

158 

181 

209 

238 

270 

302 



Trees. 

7 

41 

.11 

27 
39 
53 
69 
85 
103 

125 
148 
173 
200 
230 
261 
297 
336 
379 
425 

29 
44 
62 
81 
102 
126 

151 
180 
210 
241 
277 
313 
352 
393 
436 
480 

522 

566 

7 



8 

9 

lO 

93 
119 
147 
177 
210 

243 
282 

III 

411 
460 
506 
553 
597 
639 
674 
706 
737 

156 
177 
164 
146 
137 
91 
61 
88 
70 
68 

138 
168 
200 
238 
277 
321 
370 
421 
475 

% 

634 
681 
727 
769 
809 
846 

II 

12 

13 
14 
15 
i6 
17 
18 

228 
270 
312 
362 
415 
471 
531 
598 
660 
720 
779 
834 
899 
942 
994 
1046 

245 
293 
348 
406 
470 
540 
610 
682 

750 
820 
887 
958 
1030 
1 105 
1180 

"688' 
763 
840 
918 
990 
1065 
1135 

19 
20 

44 
35 
23 
16 

23 
24 

25 

26 

19 
9 
12 

II 

27 

1578 

'  Measurenients  by  L.  Margolin,  U.  S.  Forest  Service  in  cooperation  with  the  state  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, New  Hampshire  Forestry  Report,  1905-1906.     Stumps  averaged  about  i  foot  in  height. 

2  The  volume  given  is  actual  saw  cut.  Sixty  per  cent  was  round-edged  and  forty  per  cent  squared, 
70  per  cent  i-inch  boards  and  30  per  cent  Zj-inch  plank. 


TABLES 


457 


TABLE  XXXVI.  — WHITE   PINE.i    VOLUME  IN   BOARD   FEET, 
MASSACHUSETTS. 

Scaled  by  rule  made  from  mill  tallies.     Volume  to  4-inch  top.     Stumps 
taken  at  5  foot. 


Total  height  in  feet. 

Diameter, 
breast  high, 
in  inches. 

30 

40 

so 

60 

70 

80 

90 

Board  feet. 

1 

7 
8 

9 

10 
II 
12 

13 
14 
15 
16 

10 

15 
20 

25 
30 

20 
30 
35 
45 
55 
65 
75 
90 

30 
40 
50 
60 

75 
90 

105 
120 

135 
155 

175 

50 
65 
80 

95 
"5 
135 
15s 
175 
195 
215 
240 
260 
280 
305 

65 
85 
105 
125 
145 
165 
190 
215 
245 
270 
300 
325 

% 

420 
450 

515 
550 

"5 
145 
170 
200 

23  s 
265 
300 
335 
370 
405 
445 
485 
525 
570 
620 
66s 
715 

200 
230 
260 
300 
340 
380 
420 
465 
510 

555 
605 
650 
700 

750 
800 

17 
18 

19 

21 

22 

23 
24 

25 

26 



855 
905 

27 

'  Taken  from  "Forest  Mensuration  of  the  White  Pine  in  Massachusetts." 


458 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


TABLE   XXXVII.  — WHITE   PINE.i     VOLUME    IN   CORDS, 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Volume  to  4-inch  top.     Stumps  taken  at  J  foot.     Logs  scaled  by  caliper  rule. 


Diameter, 
breast 
high, 

in  inches. 


Total  height  in  feet. 


.c 
.c 
.c 
.c 
.c 

'3 
>3 

>7 

1 

.04 

•OS 
■07 
.09 
.11 
•13 
•15 
■17 

.26 

•  31 

•36 

•  41 

.46 

•  52 

•58 
.64 
.70 

•  77 
•85 
.92 

1 .01 
1.08 
1. 16 


'  Taken  Irom  "Forest  Mensuration  of  the  White  Pine  in  Massachusetts.' 


TABLES 


459 


TABLE  XXXVIIL  — WHITE   PINE.i     VOLUME   IN   CUBIC  FEET, 

MASSACHUSETTS. 


Volume  outside  bark,  up  to  a  4-inch  top.     Stumps  taken  at  |  foot. 


Total  height  in  feet. 

breast 

high,               ^ 

3               40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

Cubic  feet. 

5  I 

6  2 

7  3 

8  4 

9  5 
10 

II 
12 
13 
14 
IS 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25        ... 

8 

6            3 

4  4 

5  6 
9          7 

9 

II 

■  •       13 

..       16 

3 
4 
0 

7 
6 
6 
9 

2 

4 
6 

7 
10 
12 
14 
17 
20 

23 
26 

30 

•3 

.1 
.8 
.0 
.0 
.6 
.6 
■4 
•7 
.8 
•5 

7 
9 
12 

15 
17 
21 
24 
28 
32 
36 
40 
44 
49 
52 

7 
8 
0 
0 
9 

8 
7 
6 

5 

0 
9 

12.0 
I5-0 
17.9 
21.4 

25-3 
29.2 

32.5 
37-9 
42.3 
47.2 
S2.6 
57-9 
63.2 
69.1 
74.9 
81.3 
87.1 
94  0 

20 
24 
29 
34 
39 
44 
49 
56 
61 
67 
74 
82 
89 
98 
104 
112 

9 
9 

8 
7 
6 

5 
8 
7 
S 
8 
7 
0 

3 

I 

9 
6 

28.7 

33.7 

38.7 

43.6 

49. 5 

55.9 

62.3 

69.1 

76.9 

84.8 

92.6 

101.4 

no. 8 

119. 0 

128.8 

'  Taken  from  "Forest  Mensuration  of  the  White  Pine  in  Massachusetts.' 


460 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW   ENGLAND 


TABLE    XXXIX.  —  SPRUCE.i      VOLUME    IN    BOARD    FEET    BY 
THE   NEW  HAMPSHIRE   RULE, 2  GRAFTON   COUNTY,   N.  H. 


Height  in  feet. 

breast  high. 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

in  inches. 

VoU 

me  in  board  feet 

7 

18 

25 

30 

35 

8 

29 

38 

45 

53 

9 

42 

53 

61 

71 

10 

58 

67 

78 

91 

II 

76 

84 

94 

no 

12 

96 

100 

112 

130 

13 
14 

IS 

16 

113 
129 

130 

151 

148 

172 

194 

166 

195 

219 

186 

219 

245 

17 

18 

208 

244 

275 

272 
308 

305 
343 

19 

20 

346 

400 

Table  by  T.  S.  Woolsey,  Jr.,  1903,  published  in  "The  Woodsman's  Handbook." 
'  Cutting  to  a  top  diameter  limit  of  6  inches. 


TABLES 


461 


TABLE   XL.  — SPRUCE. 1     VOLUME    IN   BOARD   FEET." 


Diam- 
eter, 


high. 


Total  height  of  tree  in  feet. 


30 

40 

50 
65 
75 
90 

105 
120 


25 
35 
45 
60 
70 

85 
100 
120 
^35 
15s 
170 

185 
205 
235 


25 

40 

50 

65 

80 

100 

"5 

135 

155 

170 

190 

210 

235 
265 
300 
330 
360 
400 


45 

55 

70 

90 

110 

125 

ISO 

170 

185 

210 

235 
260 

295 
330 
360 
400 
440 


80 


165 

180 

190 

205 

205 

225 

230 

250 

255 

280 

290 

320 

325 

355 

3bo 

390 

395 

430 

435 

470 

480 

515 

150 

170 

19s 

220 

250 

275 
310 
350 
38s 

425 
465 
510 

555 


315 
350 
390 
430 
470 
510 
550 
600 
650 


1  Taken  from  "A  Manual  for  Northern  Woodsmen."  Mr.  Austin  Gary,  the  author,  considers 
tables  XL,  XLI  and  XLII  applicable  to  other  coniferous  species  with  certain  modifications.  For 
balsam  fir  he  advises  a  deduction  of  8  per  cent. 

2  Based  on  2500  trees  scaled  in  16-foot  log  lengths  up  to  6  inches  in  diameter  by  the  Maine  log 
rule  and  discounted  from  5  to  10  per  cent. 


462 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


TABLE  XLL  — SPRUCE.i    VOLUME  IN  CUBIC  FEET  OF  ENTIRE 
STEM   INCLUDING   BARK.* 


Diam- 
eter, 
breast 
high, 
in  inches. 

Total  height  of  tree  in  feet. 

40 

45 

so 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

80 

90 

6 

7 
8 

9 
10 
II 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

4-9 
6.3 
7.8 
9.8 
12.0 

5-3 

6.9 

8.6 
10.8 

13-5 
16.0 
18. 5 
22 

5-8 
7.6 

9-5 
12.0 

iS-o 

18.0 

21 

24 

28 

31 

6.5 
8.5 

10.6 

13-4 

16.5 

19.7 

23 

27 

30 

34 

38 

43 

47 

52 

56 

9.6 
12.0 

ISO 
18.2 

22 

25 
29 

33 
37 
41 
46 
5° 
55 
60 

14 
17 
20 
23 
27 
31 
36 
40 
44 
49 
54 
59 
65 
72 
79 
87 
96 

21 
25 
29 
34 
38 
43 
47 
52 
58 
64 

1° 

84 
92 
100 

27 
32 
36 
41 
46 
51 
56 
62 
69 
76 
82 

88 

95 
104 

34 
39 
44 
49 
55 
61 
67 
74 
81 
87 
93 
100 
108 

63 
70 
77 
85 

11 
105 
114 
123 

17 
18 

19 
20 

21 

22 

23 
24 

1  Taken  from  "A  Manual  for  Northern  Woodsmen." 

2  Based  on  2500  trees.     Bark  is  estimated  to  form  about  123  per  cent  of  the  total  volume. 

TABLE  XLIL  — SPRUCE.I     VOLUME   IN   CORDS." 


Diameter, 

breast 

high, 

in  inches. 


Total  height  of  tree  in  feet. 


55 

1 
?o 

75 

13 

16 

19 

20 

22 

22 

24 

26 

26 

28 

30 

30 

32 

34 

34 

3b 

39 

38 

40 

43 

42 

45 

48 

46 

50 

54 

50 

55 

59 

56 

60 

65 

62 

66 

72 

•  05 
.06 
.08 

.10 

•  15 
.18 


1  Taken  from  "A  Manual  for  Northern  Woodsmen." 

»  Derived  from  Table  XLI  by  deducting  a  fair  allowance  for  waste  in  stump,  also  volume  of  top 
above  4  inches  diameter,  and  dividing  by  96,  the  usual  number  of  cubic  feet,  solid  wood,  in  a  piled  cord. 


TABLES 


463 


TABLE  XLIIL  — SPRUCE.i     VOLUME   OF   UNPEELED   PULP 
WOOD  IN  CUBIC  FEET,  SOUTHERN  NEW  HAMPSHIRE.^ 


Diameter, 
breast 
high, 

in  inches. 


Height  of  tree  in  feet. 


Volume  in  cubic  feet. 


109 


Trees. 
29 
98 
128 
i6s 
161 

113 

78 
63 
42 
55 
56 
49 
38 
44 
30 


1  Taken  from  "The  Woodsman's  Handbook." 

2  Stumps  varying  from  j  to  ij  feet  and  tops  above  4-inch  diameter  point  are  excluded.  To  reduce 
cords  divide  by  100  or  point  off  two  places.  Some  use  95  or  96  cubic  feet  per  cord.  Bark  equals 
per  cent  of  total  volume. 


464 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


GROWTH   OF   INDIVIDUAL  TREES. 

TABLE  XLIV.— ASPEN.i     RATE   OF   GROWTH   BASED   ON 

QUALITY   OF   LOCALITY. 

Based  on  measurements  of  409  trees. 


Total 

Total 

Diam- 

Total 

vol- 

Diameter, 

vol- 

eter, 

vol- 

Age. 

breast 
high,  out- 

Height. 

exclud- 

breast 
high,  out- 

Height. 

ume, 
exclud- 

breast 
high. 

Height. 

ume, 
exclud- 

side bark. 

ing 

ing 
bark. 

ing 
bark. 

bark. 

bark. 

Years. 

Inches. 

Ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Inches. 

Ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Inches. 

Ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

5 

1-3 

11 

0.6 

7 

0.2 

4 

10 

2.7 

21 

I 

6 

15 

I.O 

8 

20 

5-3 

40 

I  .0 

3 

8 

32 

2.4 

17 

30 

8,0 

55 

7-5 

5 

8 

45 

2.0 

3.0 

28 

40 

10.4 

66 

16.5 

7 

8 

56 

7.0 

4-7 

39 

05 

50 

12.7 

75 

27-5 

9 

4 

b5 

13.0 

5.« 

50 

2 

60 

14.8 

81 

42.5 

10 

9 

71 

19.0 

7.0 

57 

5 

70 

17.0 

«5 

62.0 

12 

3 

74 

25.0 

8.2 

61 

8 

80 

19.2 

87 

«2.5 

13 

4 

75 

31-5 

9-3 

64 

12 

90 

21.3 

88 

104.0 

14 

3 

77 

37-0 

10.5 

66 

16 

100 

23-3 

89 

126.0 

15 

I 

78 

42.5 

II. 7 

1 

66 

20 

'  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bull. 


TABLE  XLV. 


PAPER   BIRCH. 1     HEIGHT  AND   DIAMETER 
GROWTH. 


Height. 

Diameter,  breast  high. 

Age. 

Seedlings.2 

Sprouts.' 

Seedlings. 

Sprouts. 

Years. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

5 

5 

10 

0.  2 

0.7 

10 

13 

19 

I.I 

1.8 

15 

22 

28 

2.2 

2.9 

20 

30 

36 

3-4 

4.0 

25 

37 

43 

4.4 

4-9 

30 

44 

49 

5-3 

5-6 

35 

49 

55 

6.1 

6.3 

40 

54 

60 

6.8 

6.9 

45 

58 

65 

7-5 

7.5 

SO 

62 

70 

8.0 

7-9 

55 

65 

74 

8.5 

8.4 

60 

68 

78 

8.9 

8.8 

65 
70 

75 
80 

71 
74 
76 
78 
80 

82 

9-3 
9-7 

85 
90 

81 

•  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Circular  163.  2  Based  on  measurements  of  so  trees. 

3  Based  on  measurements  of  30  trees. 


TABLES 


465 


TABLE   XLVL  — PAPER   BIRCH. 1     VOLUME   GROWTH. 


Age. 

Total  stem  volume. 

Volume,  N 

H.  rule. 

Seedlings.2 

Sprouts.' 

Seedlings. 

Sprouts. 

Years. 

Cubic  feet. 

Cubic  feet. 

Board  feet. 

Board  feet. 

20 

1.8 

25 
30 

2.3 
3-6 

3-2 
4.6 

13 
19 

16 

35 

5-2 

6.1 

22 

26 

40 

6.9 

7-7 

29 

34 

45 

8.6 

9-5 

37 

43 

50 

lO-S 

II. 4 

46 

52 

55 

12.3 

135 

55 

61 

60 

14. 1 

155 

64 

71 

65 
70 

73 
82 

17.7 

75 
80 

193 

20.7 



90 
97 

1  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Circular  163.  2  Based  on  measurement  of  50  trees. 

3  Based  on  measurement  of  30  trees. 


TABLE   XLVIL 


WHITE   PINE.i     GROWTH    IN   VOLUME   AND 
HEIGHT. 


Rich  lowland,  109 

Upland  pasture,  73 

Sandy  soil,  16 

Wet  swamp,  47 

trees. 

trees 

trees. 

trees. 

Age. 

Volume. 

Height. 

Volume. 

Height. 

Volume. 

Height. 

Volume. 

Height. 

Years. 

Cu.  ft. 

Ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Ft. 

10 

.8 

8 

.6 

9 

■4 

5 

•3 

4 

15 

1.8 

15 

I  .2 

16 

5 

14 

■  4 

10 

20 

30 

23 

2.0 

24 

I 

4 

23 

I.O 

16 

25 

5-5 

31 

4-5 

32 

2 

5 

30 

1.6 

22 

30 

9.0 

39 

7-5 

40 

4 

0 

36 

2.7 

28 

35 

13-5 

46 

II-5 

47 

6 

3 

40 

4.0 

34 

40 

19-5 

52 

16.6 

53 

9 

3 

44 

6.0 

39 

45 

26. s 

57 

22.0 

59 

12 

5 

48 

8.3 

43 

50 

35-0 

62 

27.7 

64 

16 

0 

SI 

10.7 

48 

55 

43-5 

66 

34-5 

69 

19 

8 

54 

14. 5 

51 

60 

51-5 

69 

41-7 

73 

23 

6 

57 

18.6 

54 

65 

60.0 

71 

49.0 

76 

27 

5 

59 

23.0 

57 

70 

68.0 

73 

56.0 

80 

31 

2 

61 

27.2 

60 

75 
80 

75-5 
84.0 

93-5 

75 
77 
79 
80 

82 

35 
39 
42 

3 

63 
65 

31.2 

62 

84 
87 
89 
90 

91 

34-8 

65 

85 
90 

95 
100 

8 

38.0 

68 

41.0 

70 

43-5 

1  Taken  from  "  Forest  Mensuration  of  the  White  Pine  in  Massachusetts.' 


466 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


YIELD   TABLES. 


TABLE   XLVIIL  — PAPER   BIRCH,    YIELD   PER   ACRE. 
(100  PER   CENT)    BIRCH    STANDS. 


PURE 


Penobscot,  Piscataquis,  Somerset  and  Franklin  counties,  Maine. 
(Data  gathered  by  R.  L.  Marstoa  for  Paper  Birch  Study,  1903-1907.) 


Quality  I. 

Quality   II. 

Age. 

Average 

Yield  of  trees 

Average 

Yield  of  trees 

diam- 
eter, 
breast 

Average 
height. 

Total, 
yield. 

6  inches  and 
over  in  per- 
centage of  total 

diam- 
eter, 
breast 

Average 
height. 

Total 
yield. 

6  inches  and 
over  in  per- 
centage of  total 

high. 

yield. 

high. 

yield. 

Years. 

Inches. 

Ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Per  cent. 

Inches. 

Ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Per  cent. 

15 

2-3 

24 

710 

0 

1.8 

21 

410 

0 

20 

3 

4 

33 

1020 

4 

2.6 

28 

580 

0 

25 

4 

5 

41 

1340 

27 

3-4 

34 

770 

18 

30 

5 

6 

48 

1700 

46 

4-3 

40 

lOIO 

35 

35 

6 

4 

54 

2ogo 

63 

5-0 

45 

1290 

50 

■  40 

7 

2 

58 

2520 

75 

5-7 

49 

1580 

63 

45 

7 

8 

62 

2950 

85 

6.3 

53 

1890 

73 

50 

8 

4 

65 

3340 

91 

6.8 

56 

2220 

82 

55 

8 

8 

68 

3660 

96 

7.2 

59 

2530 

89 

60 

9 

2 

70 

3940 

98 

7-6 

61 

2810 

94 

65 

9 

6 

72 

4190 

100 

7-9 

64 

3060 

97 

70 

10. 0 

74 

4450 

100 

8.2 

66 

3300 

100 

Note.  —  These  sample  plots  were  taken  in  unmanaged  stands.  All  plots  with  a  density  less  than 
50  per  cent  were  discarded.  All  plots  containing  less  than  40  per  cent  birch  were  discarded  and  the 
remainder  reduced  to  loo  per  cent  birch  by  dividing  the  actual  birch  yield  by  the  percentages  of 
the  total  basal  area  formed  by  the  birch.  Hence  the  table  applies  only  to  pure  birch  stands  of  aver- 
age density  (quality  I,  83  per  cent  and  quality  II,  75  per  cent).  For  the  yield  of  a  mixed  stand, 
containing,  for  example,  60  per  cent  of  birch,  a  corresponding  reduction  would  be  made  in  the  yield. 
The  number  of  trees  per  acre  was  exceedingly  irregular  and  was,  therefore,  excluded  from  the  table. 

The  volume  given  is  total  stem  volume,  though  the  lowest  measurement  taken  in  the  sample 
trees  was  at  4.5  feet,  and  this  disregard  for  butt  swelling  makes  the  yield  conservative. 

Based  on  20  quality  I  and  26  quality  II,  sample  plots. 


TABLES 


467 


TABLE   XLIX.  — CHESTNUT   TYPE.i     GROWTH    IN   HEIGHT, 

DIAMETER   AND    NUMBER   OF   TREES   FOR   THREE 

QUALITIES   OF   SOIL,^    CONNECTICUT. 


Quality  I. 

Qualit> 

II. 

Quality 

III 

Age. 

Height  of 

D.B.H. 
of  av- 

Num- 
ber of 

Height  of 

D.B.H. 
of  av- 

Num- 
ber of 

Height  of 

D.B.H. 

of  av- 

Num- 
ber of 

dominant 

trees 

dominant 

trees 

dominant 

trees 

trees. 

erage 
tree. 

per 
acre. 

trees. 

erage 
tree. 

per 
acre. 

trees. 

erage 

tree. 

per 
acre. 

Years. 

Feet. 

Inches. 

Trees. 

Feet. 

Inches. 

Trees. 

Feet. 

Inches. 

Trees. 

15 

38 

3-2 

1000 

30 

2.6 

1 160 

.21 

2.0 

1360 

20 

50 

4-4 

830 

40 

3 

6 

930 

30 

2 

7 

I180 

25 

58 

5-4 

680 

48 

4 

5 

800 

37 

3 

5 

990 

30 

64 

6.4 

55° 

54 

5 

3 

675 

44 

4 

3 

790 

35 

70 

7-3 

460 

60 

6 

I 

560 

50 

5 

0 

670 

40 

74 

8.1 

400 

64 

6 

8 

490 

55 

5 

6 

580 

45 

77 

8.9 

350 

68 

7 

5 

425 

59 

6 

2 

500 

50 

80 

9.6 

310 

71 

8 

2 

370 

62 

6 

8 

4SO 

55 

83 

10.3 

280 

74 

8 

8 

335 

64 

7 

3 

400 

60 

85 

10.9 

260 

76 

9 

4 

300 

67 

7 

8 

360 

65 

87 

II. 6 

235 

77 

9 

9 

280 

68 

8 

3 

330 

70 

88 

12.2 

220 

79 

10 

5 

255 

70 

8 

7 

310 

75 

90 

12.8 

200 

80 

II 

° 

240 

71 

9 

2 

290 

'  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bull.  96. 
-  For  trees  over  2  inches  in  diameter,  breast  high;   based 
size.     Quality  classes  based  on  height  of  dominant  trees. 


normally  stocked  plots,  |  to  j  acre  in 


468 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


TABLE    L.  —  OAK-CHESTNUT    TYPE.i      GROWTH    IN    HEIGHT, 

DIAMETER  AND  NUMBER  OF  TREES  FOR  THREE 

QUALITIES  OF   SOIL,^  CONNECTICUT. 


Quality  I. 

Quality  11. 

Quality  III. 

Age. 

Height  of 

D.B.H. 

of  av- 

Num- 
ber of 

Height  of 

D.B.H. 

of  av- 

Num- 
ber of 

Height  of 

D.B.H. 
of  av- 

Num. 
berof 

dominant 

trees 

dominant 

trees 

dominant 

trees 

trees. 

erage 

tree. 

per 
acre. 

trees. 

erage 
tree. 

per 
acre. 

trees. 

erage 
tree. 

per 
acre. 

Years. 

Feet. 

Inches. 

Trees. 

Feet. 

Inches. 

Trees. 

Feet. 

Inches. 

Trees. 

IS 

35 

2.9 

II30 

28 

2.5 

1 180 

23 

2.0 

1500 

20 

46 

4.0 

910 

38 

3 

3 

950 

31 

2 

8 

1070 

25 

55 

4-9 

750 

46 

4 

I 

770 

38 

3 

3 

1000 

30 

62 

5.8 

610 

52 

4 

8 

675 

43 

3 

9 

855 

35 

68 

6.6 

525 

57 

5 

5 

610 

48 

4 

4 

755 

40 

73 

7-4 

455 

61 

6 

I 

530 

52 

4 

8 

700 

45 

77 

8.2 

400 

65 

6 

7 

470 

55 

5 

3 

620 

50 

80 

8.9 

360 

68 

7 

3 

425 

58 

5 

7 

570 

55 

83 

9.6 

320 

71 

7 

8 

390 

60 

6 

I 

525 

60 

85 

10.3 

290 

73 

8 

4 

355 

62 

6 

5 

475 

65 

87 

10.9 

270 

75 

8 

9 

325 

64 

6 

9 

445 

70 

89 

II-5 

250 

77 

9 

4 

305 

66 

7 

2 

420 

75 

90 

12. 1 

235 

78 

9 

8 

285 

67 

7 

6 

390 

1  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bull.  96. 

2  For  trees  over  2  inches  in  diameter,  breast  high;   based  on  normally  stocked  plots,  5  to  j  acre  in 
size.    Quality  classes  based  on  height  of  dominant  trees. 


TABLES 


469 


TABLE    LL  — OAK    TYPE.i    GROWTH    IN    HEIGHT,    DIAMETER 

AND   NUMBER   OF   TREES  FOR   THREE   QUALITIES   OF 

SOIL  2  CONNECTICUT. 


Quality  I. 

Quality  II. 

Quality  III. 

Age. 

Height  of 

D.B.H. 

of  av- 
erage 
tree. 

Num- 
ber of 

Height  of 

D.B.H. 
of  av- 
erage 
tree. 

Num- 
ber of 

Height  of 

D.B.H. 

of  av- 
erage 
tree. 

Num- 
ber of 

dominant 
trees. 

trees 
per 
acre. 

dominant 
trees. 

trees 
per 
acre. 

dominant 
trees. 

trees 
per 
acre. 

Years. 

Feet. 

Inches. 

Trees. 

Feet. 

Inches. 

Trees. 

Feet. 

Inches. 

Trees. 

IS 

25 

2-5 

1320 

22 

2.2 

1400 

18 

I.Q 

1550 

20 

38 

3-5 

960 

31 

3 

0 

1060 

25 

5 

1290 

25 

49 

4-5 

740 

40 

3 

9 

795 

32 

3 

2 

ICK30 

30 

57 

5-5 

575 

47 

4 

6 

675 

37 

3 

7 

880 

35 

63 

6.4 

475 

53 

5 

3 

575 

42 

4 

2 

770 

40 

68 

7.2 

405 

57 

6 

0 

485 

46 

4 

7 

656 

45 

72 

8.0 

350 

61 

6 

6 

430 

49      ^ 

5 

I 

560 

50 

75 

8.7 

310 

64 

7 

I 

390 

52 

5 

5 

515 

55 

78 

9-4 

280 

67 

7 

6 

355 

54 

5 

8 

480 

60 

80 

10. 0 

260 

68 

8 

I 

325 

56 

6 

2 

450 

65 

82 

10.6 

240 

70 

8 

5 

300 

58 

6 

5 

400 

70 

84 

II .  I 

220 

72 

8 

9 

280 

60 

6 

6 

375 

75 

86 

II. 6 

210 

73 

9 

4 

25s 

61 

7 

I 

345 

1  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bull.  96. 

2  For  trees  over  2  inches  in  diameter,  breast  high;   based  on  normally  stocked  plots,  i  to  J  acre 
:e.     Quality  classes  based  on  height  of  dominant  trees. 


470 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


TABLE   LIL— YIELD  IN  CORDS  i  FOR  THREE  TYPES  AND 
QUALITIES   OF   SOIL,^   CONNECTICUT. 


Chestnut  type 

3 

Oak-chestnut  type.s 

Oak  type.3 

Quality. 

Quality. 

Quality. 

Age. 

I. 

II. 

III. 

I. 

II. 

III. 

I. 

II. 

III. 

Years. 

Cords. 

15 

16 

12 

9 

12 

10 

8 

9 

8 

6 

20 

23 

18 

13 

19 

16 

12 

15 

12 

10 

25 

30 

24 

18 

28 

22 

17 

23 

18 

14 

30 

37 

30 

23 

36 

28 

20 

30 

24 

17 

35 

43 

35 

27 

41 

33 

24 

36 

28 

21 

40 

48 

40 

31 

46 

36 

27 

40 

32 

24 

45 

53 

43 

34 

49 

40 

30 

44 

35 

26 

50 

57 

46 

37 

53 

42 

32 

48 

38 

29 

55 

61 

49 

39 

56 

45 

33 

SI 

40 

30 

60 

63 

51 

41 

59 

47 

35 

53 

43 

32 

65 

66 

53 

42 

62 

49 

37 

55 

45 

34 

70 

68 

55 

44 

64 

51 

38 

58 

47 

35 

75 

70 

57 

45 

66 

53 

39 

60 

48 

36 

1  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bull.  96. 

2  For  trees  over  2  inches  in  diameter,  breast  high.  Based  on  selected,  normally  stocked  plots 
I  to  §  acre  in  size.  Plots  varying  in  basal  area  by  not  more  than  10  per  cent  of  the  average  were 
considered  normally  stocked.  Quality  classes  based  on  average  height  of  dominant  trees.  Yields 
computed  in  cubic  feet  by  volume  tables,  to  minimum  diameters  of  2  inches,  outside  bark,  and  reduced 
to  cords  by  table  of  converting  factors.  Chestnut  converting  factors  used  for  chestnut  type,  black 
oak  factors  for  oak-chestnut  type,  and  white  oak  factors  for  oak  type. 

'  A  sub-type  included  in  the  mixed  hardwoods  type  of  the  sprout  hardwoods  region. 


TABLES 


471 


TABLE   LIIL  — CHESTNUT   TYPE.i     YIELD   IN   LUMBER  AND 

ADDITIONAL   CORDWOOD,^   CONNECTICUT. 

By  International  Log  Rule.' 


Quality. 

Age. 

I. 

II. 

III. 

Lumber. 

Additional 
cord  wood. 

Lumber. 

Additional 
cord  wood. 

Lumber. 

Additional 
cordwood. 

Years. 

Board  feet. 

Cords. 

Board  feet. 

Cords. 

Board  feet. 

Cords. 

20 

300 

21 

25 

1,400 

27 

30 

2,850 

30 

900 

27 

35 

5,100 

29 

2,100 

29 

900 

24 

40 

8,200 

28 

3.700 

31 

1,800 

26 

45 

11,000 

28 

5.400 

31 

2,  goo 

26 

50 

13.800 

28 

7.700 

29 

4,100 

26 

55 

16,500 

27 

9.900 

28 

5.500 

25 

60 

19,100 

25 

12,000 

26 

7,000 

24 

65 

21,600 

24 

14,000 

25 

8,400 

22 

70 

23,900 

22 

16,100 

23 

9,800 

21 

75 

25,700 

21 

17,800 

21 

11,100 

19 

'  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bull.  96. 

-  Based  on  123  normally  stocked  plots,  from  |  to  j  acre  in  size.     Cordwood  converting  factor 
used  =  80  cubic  feet  per  cord.  3  Xen  per  cent  deducted  for  circular  saw  kerf. 


TABLE  LIV. 


■CHESTNUT  TYPE.i    YIELD  IN  TIES^  AND  ADDI- 
TIONAL  CORDWOOD.' 


Quality. 

Age. 

I. 

II. 

III. 

Ties. 

Additional 
cordwood. 

Ties. 

Additional 
cordwood. 

Ties. 

Additional 
cordwood. 

Years. 

25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 
55 
60 

65 
70 

75 

Number. 

25 
76 
140 
225 
320 
435 
565 
710 

855 
975 
1075 

Cords. 
29 
34 
37 
38 
37 
35 
32 
29 
26 
25 
24 

Number. 

20 

55 
100 
150 

215 

290 

365 
440 
510 

575 

Cords. 

29 
33 
36 
36 
35 
33 
30 
28 
26 
25 

Number. 

20 

45 

75 

no 

145 
190 

235 
280 

330 

Cords. 

25 
28 
30 
31 
31 
30 
29 
28 
26 

1  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bull.  96.  2  All  first  class  —  6'X8'X8'. 

'Based  on  123  normally  stocked  sample  plots,  from  i  to  J  acre  in  size.     Cordwood  converting 
ctor  used  =  80  cubic  feet  per  cord. 


472 


FORESTRY  IN  NEW  ENGLAND 


TABLE   LV.— WHITE   PINE.i    YIELD   PER   ACRE,    SOUTHERN 
NEW   HAMPSHIRE. 

(Data  gathered  by  L.  Margolin  for  Graded  Mill  Tallies,  1906.) 


Quality  I. 

Age. 

Number  of 
trees. 

Basal  area. 

Mean 
height. 

Volume. 

Current  annual 
increment. 

Mean  an- 
nual incre- 
ment. 

Years. 

Sq.  ft. 

Ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.  ft. 

25 

2430 

190 

33 

3,100 

124 

124 

30 

1840 

215 

41 

4,367 

253 

145 

35 

1250 

230 

48 

5-850 

296 

167 

40 

870 

238 

56 

7-033 

236 

176 

45 

640 

243 

64 

8,000 

193 

177 

50 

510 

246 

70 

8,767 

153 

175 

55 

430 

249 

75 

9.475 

141 

172 

60 

380 

252 

80 

10,100 

125 

168 

65 

340 

255 

84 

10,633 

106 

164 

70 

310 

258 

87 

.    11,100 

93 

158 

75 

280 

261 

90 

11-567 

93 

154 

80 

260 

263 

93 

12,000 

86 

150 

85 

240 

266 

95 

12,383 

76 

146 

90 

220 

268 

97 

12,767 

76 

142 

Quality 

II. 

25 

2430 

163 

31 

2,700 

.08 

108 

30 

1840 

183 

38 

3.700 

200 

123 

35 

1250 

195 

45 

4,850 

230 

139 

40 

870 

212 

52 

5.800 

190 

145 

45 

640 

221 

59 

6,600 

160 

147 

50 

510 

228 

65 

7.300 

140 

146 

55 

430 

233 

71 

7.925 

125 

144 

60 

380 

236 

76 

8,500 

115 

142 

65 

340 

238 

80 

9,000 

100 

138 

70 

310 

241 

84 

9.450 

90 

135 

75 

280 

244 

87 

9,900 

90 

132 

80 

260 

247 

89 

10,300 

80 

129 

85   ■ 

240 

250 

91 

10,650 

70 

125 

90 

220 

253 

93 

1 1 ,000 

70 

122 

Quality  III. 


25 
30 

2430 
1840 

150 

165 

28 

2,30b 
3,033 

92 

lOI 

35 

146 

35 

1250 

176 

42 

3.850 

163 

no 

40 

870 

185 

48 

4,567 

143 

114 

45 

640 

191 

54 

5,200 

126 

116 

50 

510 

197 

60 

5.833 

126 

116 

55 

430 

201 

66 

6,375 

108 

116 

60 

380 

205 

71 

6,900 

105 

115 

65 

340 

208 

75 

7,367 

93 

113 

70 

310 

211 

79 

7,817 

90 

112 

75 

280 

213 

83 

8,233 

83 

no 

80 

260 

216 

85 

8,600 

73 

107 

85 

240 

218 

88 

8,917 

63 

105 

90 

220 

221 

89 

9,233 

63 

103 

Taken  from  "The  Woodsman's  Handbook. 


TABLES 


473 


TABLE   LVL— WHITE  PINE.i    YIELD  TABLE  IN  BOARD  FEET, 
CORDS  AND   CUBIC  FEET. 


Age, 
years. 

i-inch 
boards. 

Cords. 

Cubic 
feet. 

i-inch 
boards. 

Cords. 

Cubic 
feet. 

I-inch 
boards. 

Cords. 

Cubic 
feet. 

25 

10,825 

25    I 

2080 

6.750 

16.4 

1300 

3,975 

10.8 

750 

30 

19,900 

44.0 

3750 

12,500 

31.2 

2740 

7.500 

18.2 

1400 

35 

31.150 

60.4 

5420 

24,400 

49.0 

4375 

16,950 

.S5.8 

3035 

40 

40,650 

70.6 

6590 

32,800 

.58.0 

5300 

25,200 

46.2 

4080 

45 

49.350 

78.0 

7420 

40,600 

64.8 

6075 

32,100 

51.8 

4785 

50 

55.150 

84.2 

8035 

46,500 

70.0 

6725 

37,550 

56.6 

5475 

55 

59,650 

89.2 

8575 

50,550 

74.8 

7200 

42,100 

60.8 

6015 

60 

63,600 

93-4 

9075 

53,200 

79.2 

7655 

44.550 

64.6 

6340 

65 

67,050 

97.2 

9550 

56,600 

83.0 

8050 

46,150 

68.4 

6550 

^  Taken  from  "Forest  Mensuration  of  the  White  Pine  in  Massachusetts." 


TABLE   LVII. 


WHITE   PINE.I     YIELD   PER   ACRE,   SOUTHERN 
NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 


(Data  gathered  by  L.  Margolin  for  Graded  Mill  Tallies,  1906.) 


Age. 

Volume- 

Age. 

Volume. 

Quality  I. 

Quality  II. 

Quality  III. 

Quality  I. 

Quality  II. 

Quality  III. 

Years. 

Bd.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Years. 

Bd.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

Bd.  ft. 

20 

4,600 

3.150 

1,700 

60 

57.300 

47,400 

37.500 

25 

8,400 

5.900 

3.450 

65 

61,850 

51,850 

41,850 

30 

15,100 

10,800 

6. 550 

70 

65,900 

55,800 

45.700 

35 

24,950 

18,050 

11,200 

75 

69.750 

59.500 

49.250 

40 

33.550 

25,000 

16,450 

80 

73,300 

62,850 

52,400 

45 

40,750 

31.450 

22,150 

85 

76,700 

66,000 

55.300 

50 

47,450 

37,800 

27,650 

90 

80,050 

69,000 

57.950 

55 

52,350 

42,550 

32,750 

1  Taken  from  "The  Woodsman's  Handbook." 

2  Volume  in  board  feet  is  round-edged  bo.xboard  material. 


474 


FORESTRY   IN   NEW   ENGLAND 


TABLE  LVIIL 


-WHITE  PINE. 
SOUTHERN 


YIELD  PER  ACRE  OF  THINNINGS, 
NEW   HAMPSHIRE. 


(Data  gathered  by  L.  Margolin  for  Graded  Mill  Talli 


Quality  I. 

Trees  under 
5  inches  in 
diameter, 
breast  high. 

Quality  II. 

Trees  under 
S  inches  in 
diameter, 
breast  high. 

Quality  III. 

Age. 

Total  thinning  per 
acre. 

Total  thinning  per 
acre. 

Total  thinning 
per  acre. 

iiil 

Years. 

25 
30 
35 
40 

45 
50 
55 
60 

65 
70 

75 
80 

85 
90 

Cu.  ft. 

1350 
1730 
1980 
2120 
2240 
2280 
2280 
2260 
2200 
2100 

1950 
1700 

Bd.  ft.2 

2,000 

4-500 
6,800 
8,700 
10,100 
11,200 
12,000 
12,300 
12,300 
11,900 
11,100 
9.500 

Cu.  ft. 
830 
660 
480 
270 
60 

Cu.  ft. 
900 
1380 
16S0 
1900 
2040 
2100 
2100 
2000 
1850' 
1630 
1300 
860 
200 

Bd.  ft. 

750 

3.300 

5,600 

7.500 

8,900 

9,900 

10,400 

10,600 

10,300 

9.500 

8,000 

5,000 

1, 200 

Cu.  ft. 

750 
600 
450 
300 
150 

Cu.  ft. 

600 

1090 

1440 

1640 

1750 

1800 

1780 

1700 

1590 

1420 

1200 

920 

650 

370 

Bd.  ft. 

2200 
4300 
5800 
6900 
7600 
8100 
8300 
8200 
7800 
6900 
5600 
4000 
2300 

Cu.  ft. 
600 
500 
400 
300 
200 
80 

1  Taken  from  "The  Woodsman's  Handbook." 

2  Volume  in  board  feet  is  round-edged  boxboard  material. 


INDEX. 


Advance  growth,  75. 

Age,  of  trees,  172;  of  stands,  178. 

Agriculture,  290. 

Animals,  injuries  from,  97,  137;  preven- 
tion of  damage,  262,  293,  339,  371. 

Aphid  (pine  bark),  103. 

Arborvitas,  52,  203,  246,  269. 

Areas  of  New  England  forest  regions, 
197. 

Ash,  white,  58,  269,  276,  288,  298,  311, 
3^3,  325,  346,  351,  355,  361,  364. 

Aspen,  see  Poplar. 

Assimilation,  4. 

Austria,  177. 

Back  fires,  152. 

Baden,  178. 

Balsam,  48,  184,  202,  222,  246,  269. 

Basswood,  58,  246,  269,  276,  288,  346. 

Beech,  57,  203,  246,  268,  271,  276,  288, 

346. 
Bibliography,  420. 
Bingham  purchase,  190. 
Birch,  black,  269,  346,  353. 
Birch,  gray,  56,  298,  304,  309,  311, 

345,  351,  352,362. 
Birch,  yellow,  54,   203,   246,    268, 

276,  288,  298,  312,   325,  346, 

364- 
Birch,  paper  or  white,  55,  203,  231, 

uses  of,  248;   tables,  440,  441, 

464,  465,  466. 
Birds,  damage  by.  97,  113. 
Black  Hills  national  forest,  155. 
Blight,  white  pine,  129. 
Blister  rust  of  white  pine,  124,  341 
Bowdoin  grants,  191. 
Bo.x  industry,  329. 


324, 


351, 

269; 
442, 


Brown-tail  moth,    no,   340,   388,   391, 

403- 
Brush  piling  and  burning,  260,  292,  338, 

370,  380. 

Calipers,  157. 

Cambium,  105,  119,  172. 

Cannon,  Speaker,  opposition  to  forestry, 

375- 
Cary,  Austin,  162. 
Cattle,  damage  by,  99. 
Cedar,  red,  see  Juniper. 
Cedar,  northern  white,  see  Arborvitas. 
Cedar,  southern  white,   298,  301,  316, 

346. 
Chemical  extinguishers,  147,  149. 
Chemicals  required  by  trees,  2,  5. 
Cherry,  black,  299,  311,  313,  325. 
Chestnut,  60,  269,  298,  300,  311,  313, 

325,  345,  347,  349,  355,  356,  364; 

tables,  435,  442,  443,  444,  445,  467, 

468,  470,  471. 
Chestnut   bark   disease,  118,  341,  355, 

359,  372. 
Cleanings,  34,  324. 
Cleveland,  President,  190. 
Climate,  influences  of,  i. 
Clinton,  Dr.  G.  P.,  121. 
Codominant,  81. 
Composite  form,  16. 
Connecticut,  379. 

Connecticut  Agricultural  College,  380. 
Cooperage  staves,  249. 
Coppice,  simple,  12,  16,  :i2,  191;    cop- 
pice with  standards,  16,  2i3i  pole- 

wood  coppice,  35. 
Cordwood  converting  factors,  453. 
Cornell  Forest  School,  21. 


476 


INDEX 


Cost  of  planting,  72. 

Crown  class,  81. 

Crows,  damage  by,  98. 

Cubic    contents    of    logs,    solid,    436; 

stacked,  437. 
Currant  rust,  see  Blister  rust. 
Cutting,  cost  of,  168. 

Damage  cutting,  91. 
Dartmouth  grant,  190. 
Deer,  damage  by,  97. 
Defebaugh,   history  of  the  lumber  in- 
dustry of  America,  186,  190. 
Dominant,  91. 
Doyle  log  rule,  428. 
Driving  logs,  240,  286. 
Duff,  30. 
Dwight,  President  of  Yale,  191. 

Educational  work,  349,  380,  385,  390, 

398,  402. 
Electricity  for  fuel,  258. 
Elm  Leaf  beetle,  113. 
England,  184,  186. 
Estimating  tire  damage,  152,  155. 
Estimating  timber,  156;    money  value, 

165. 
Evelyn,  John,  185. 
Even-aged  forest,  14,  180,  309. 
Excelsior,  249. 

Final  cutting,  29. 
Fir,  see  Balsam. 

Fires,  causes,  136,  256,  291,  334,  369. 
crown,  131,  256,  333. 
extinguishing,  146,  261,  292,  339,  37:. 
fire  service,  379,  384,  389,  392,  396, 

400. 
ground,  133. 
lookout   towers,    139,    257,  292,  337, 

390,  397,  400. 
northern  hardwoods  region,  291;  pine 

region,   332;     spruce   region,    254; 

sprout  hardwoods  region,  367. 
patrol,  140,  257.  337,  397. 
prevention,  138,  257,  292,  335,  369. 
statistics,  417. 
surface,  132,  291,  s^t,,  367. 


Fire  lines,  142,  370. 

Forest  regions,  196,  200. 

Forest  tent  caterpillar,  114,  295. 

Forestry  associations,  381,  386,  394. 

Forestry,  purpose  of,   15;    practice  of, 

403,  404;   net  return  from,  413;   as 

an  investment,  415. 
French  method,  84. 
Fungi,  118,  263,  295,  340,  372. 

Gipsy  moth,  108,  340,  388,  391,  403. 

Goats,  damage  by,  100. 

Gorges,  Sir  Ferdinando,  185. 

Grades  of  thinning,  82. 

Graves,  H.  S.,  171. 

Growth,  171;  annual,  408;  diameter, 
174,  179;  height,  175,  179  ;  of  indi- 
vidual trees.  464;  volume,  176,  179. 

Guild,  Gov.  Curtis,  conference  called 
by,  375- 

Hardwoods,  log  rule  for  second  growth, 

435- 
Harvard  Forest  School,  385. 
Hauling,  cost  of,  168. 
Hedge  hogs,  damage  by,  262. 
Heeling  in,  68. 
Heins,  125. 
Hemlock,  49,  203,  246,  269,  271,  288, 

298,  300,  314,  346,  349,  359,  364; 

tables,  454,  455. 
Hewitt,  Dr.  C.  Gordon,  107,  112. 
Hickory,  184,  346,  347,  357,  364. 
Pligh  forests,  12. 
Hogs,  damage  by,  100;  for  killing  grubs, 


[03,  105. 


Hopkins,  Dr. 
Humus,  6. 
Hypsometer,  157,  175. 


Improvement  cuttings,  74,  313;  sched- 
ule of;  92;  method  of  controlling, 
93- 

Income,  see  Revenue. 

Increment,  see  Growth. 

Industries,  243,  288,  329, 

Insects,  loi,  262,  295,  340,  372. 


INDEX 


477 


Intermediate,  8i. 
International  log  rule,  433. 
Irregular  forest,  15. 

June  bugs,  116. 
Juniper,  52,  351,  362. 

Katahdin,  elevation  of,  291. 
Kearsarge  station,  139. 

Lady  bugs,  185. 

Larch,  see  Tamarack. 

Larch,  European,  51,  276. 

Larch  sawfly,  in,  262. 

Liberation  cuttings,  76. 

Light,  relation  of  light  to  tree  growth, 

2,4- 

Lightning,  as  cause  of  iire,  138. 
Logging,  cost  of,   158;    methods,   235, 

285,  327,  362. 
Log  rules,  159,  427. 
Lookout  stations,  139. 
Lopping  of  branches,  141,  258. 
Lumbering,  235,  285,  327,  362. 
Lumber,  245;  origin  of  word,  189. 
Lumber  industry,   189,   245,   246,   288, 

329.  364- 

Maine,  399. 

Maine  Forestry  District,  400. 
Maine  log  rule,  429. 
Manufacturing,  290,  329,  364. 
Map  making,  162, 

Maps,  forest  regions,  facing  197;   rail- 
road lines  and  forest  regions,  facing 

199. 
Maple,  red  or  soft,  54,  298,  301,  304, 

309,  311,  312,  324,  325,  346,  347, 

350.  353.  361,  364- 
Maple,  sugar,  53,   203,  268,   271,   276, 

288,  298,  346. 
Maple  sugar  industry,  289. 
Maple  sugar  orchard,  management  of, 

279. 
Maple  worm,  see  Forest  tent  caterpillar 
Markets  for  forest  products,  242,  287, 

328,  364. 


Marking,  93. 

Massachusetts,  384. 

Massachusetts     Agricultural     College, 

385. 
Mattock,  67. 
Maturity,  178. 
Mice,  damage  by,  97. 
Micheaux,  197. 
Mixed  forests,  10,  11. 
Moles,  damage  by,  97. 

Naval  stores,  187. 

New  Hampshire,  396. 

New  Hampshire  log  rule,  430. 

New  Hampshire  State  College  of  Agri- 
culture, 398. 

New  Hampshire  Timberland  Owners 
Association,  397. 

Nitrogen,  6. 

Normal  stands,  180. 

Northern  hardwoods  region,  197,  198, 
265,418. 

Novelties,  248. 

Oak,  chestnut,  345,  347,  349;    tables, 

451,  452,  468,  469,  470. 
Oak,  red,  62,  184,  269,  276,  298,  300, 

311,  313,  325,  345,  347,  349,  355, 

357.  364;  tables,  446. 
Oak,  white,  62,  184,  298,  311,  345,  347, 

364;  tables,  450,  451,  452,  468,  469, 

470. 
Oaks,  black,  tables,  447,  448,  449,  468, 

469,  470. 
Oil  for  fuel,  258. 
Ownership  of  lands,  spruce  region,  251; 

northern   hardwoods   region,    290; 

white    pine    region,    332;    sprout 

hardwoods  region,  366;    state  re- 
serves, 404. 

Patrol,  189,  191. 

Pepys,  Samuel,  184. 

Pinchot,   302. 

Pine,   pitch,    42,    298,    301,   316,    325, 

345;  manufacture  of  naval  stores, 

187. 


478 


INDEX 


Pine,  red  or  Norway,  41,  202,  231,  314, 

316,  325. 

Pine,  Scotch,  43,  316,  325. 
Pine,  white,  37,  183,  189,  192,  202,  231, 
269,  276,  297,  303,  309,  311,  313, 

317,  318,  324,  325,  345,  351,  355; 
tables,  434,  456,  457,  458,  459-  465, 
472,473,474. 

Planting,  opportunities  for,  65,  231,  276, 
313,  324,  325,  355,  359;  methods, 
67;  heeling  in  plants,  68;  size  of 
plants,  69;  pure  versus  mixed  plan- 
tations, 70;    spacing,  71;    cost,  72. 

Polyporus  schweinitzii,  123,  263. 

Poplar,  59,  203,  231,  269,  309,  324,  346, 
353;   tables,  438.  439,  464- 

Poplar,  yellow,  see  Tulip  tree. 

Porcupines,  see  Hedge  hogs. 

Potash,  189,  191. 

Preparatory  cutting,  30. 

Prices  of  lumber,  167. 

Pruning,  95. 

Pulpwood,  193,  243,  246. 

Pumps,  spray,  147,  149. 

Punk,  127. 

Pure  forests,  10,  11. 

Pure  planting,  70. 

Quality,  10. 

Rabbits,  damage  by,  90. 

Railroads,  logging,  241;  as  cause  of  fire, 

136,  155- 
Regular  form,  15. 
Removal  cutting,  30. 
Reproduction  cutting,  74. 
Reserve  form,  16. 
Revenue  of  European  forests,  414. 
Rhode  Island.  389. 
Robinson,  History  of  Vermont,  192. 
Root  development,  5. 
Rossing  bark,  260. 
Rot,  white  heart,  126. 
Rotation,  87. 

Saw  mills,  introduction  of,  185;  port- 
able, 194,   m  spruce  region,  239;  in 


northern  hardwoods  region,  286;  in 

white  pine  region,  328;    in  sprout 

hardwoods  region,  363. 
Scandinavia,  184,  186. 
Scotland,  184. 
Scribner  log  rule,  427. 
Seed  cutting,  29. 
Seed  spots,  67;   cost,  73. 
Seeding  or  sowing,  66. 
Selection  forest,  15. 
Shakers,  98. 
Sheep,  damage  by,  100. 
Shifting  sands,  326. 
Ship  building,  187. 

Silvicultural  systems,  17;   see  also  Sys- 
tems of  reproduction. 
Silvicultural  characteristics  of  trees,  37. 
Skidway,  166. 
"Snaking,"  237. 
Soap  solution,  105. 
Society    for    the    Protection    of    New 

Hampshire  Forests,  398. 
Soils,  5;   chemical  composition,  7. 
Spacing,  71. 
Spaulding,  P.,  124,  128. 
Spark  arrester,  136. 
Spools,  248. 
Spores,  119. 
Sprout  hardwoods  region,  197,  198,  342, 

418. 
Spruce  destroying  beetle,  105,  262. 
Spruce  budworm,  106,  262. 
Spruce,  red,  45,  184,  202,  216,  222,  223, 

246,  269,  288;  tables,  460,  461,  462, 

463- 
Spruce  region,  197,  200,  418. 
Spruce,  Norway,  47,  231,  276. 
Squirrels,  damage  by,  81. 
Stand,  8. 
State  administration,  379,  384,  389,  391, 

396, 399- 
State  forests,  381,  386,  391,  394,  398, 

402. 
State  nurseries,  383,  386,  395,  399. 
Stumpage,  166,  169. 
Summer  resort  business,  194,  249,  289. 
Suppressed,  81. 


INDEX 


479 


Systems  of  reproduction: 

dear  cutting,  20,  21,  22,  24,  25,  26,  27, 
217,  221,  222,  225,  226,  228,  283, 
285,  314,  316,  318,  325,  327,  359, 
360. 

coppice,  31;  simple  coppice,  32,  283, 
325,  356,  360;  coppice  with  stand- 
ards, 33. 

pole-wood  sprout,  35,  324,  357,  360. 

selection,  17,  94,  217,  221,  222,  223, 
277,  321,  359- 

shelterwood,  27,  226,  266,  279,  284, 
318,  320,  324. 

Tamarack,  50,  203. 

Taxation,  377,  383,  386,  391,  395,  399, 

415- 
Thinnings,  79,  228,  278,  280,  321. 
Tolerant,  4. 
Tools,  for  fires,  147. 
Toothpicks,  248. 
Toys,  248. 

Traction  engines,  240. 
Trails,  146. 

Trametes  pini,  122,  263. 
Transplants,  72. 
Transpiration,  3. 
Tulip  tree,  63,  346,  351,  361. 
Two-storied  forests,  16,  309,  349. 
Types,  definition,  7,  8. 

birch  and  poplar,  205,  211,  228,  269, 
272,  283. 

hardwood,  205,  207,  223,  269,  277. 

hemlock,  299,  300,  314,  346,  348,  359. 

how  to  identify,  199. 

mixed  hardwoods,  299,  311,  324,  346, 
356,  467,  468,  469,  470,  471- 

mixed  hardwoods  swamp,  346,  350, 
360. 

old  field,  205,  215,  226,  269,  273,  274, 
284,  285,  312,  325,  346,  351,  361. 

permanent  and  temporary,  9. 

pine  and  inferior  hardwoods,  29,  308, 

323- 
pitch  pine,  299,  301,  316. 


Types,  pure  white  pine,  299,  303,  31S. 

346,351,361. 
soft  maple  swamp,  299,  312,  325. 
spruce  fiat,  205,  206,  220. 
spruce  slope,  205,  209,  217. 
swamp,  205,  222,  269,  272,  283. 
waste  land,  299,  312,  325. 
white  cedar  swamp,   299,  301,  316, 

346,  351,  361. 

Uneven-aged  forests,  14,  181,  202. 
University  of  Maine,  402. 

Valuation  survey,  162, 
Vermont,  391. 
Vermont  log  rule,  432. 
Vermont  University  grants,  190. 
Volume  tables,  158,  438. 
Von  Schrenk,  122. 

Wagons  for  fires,  150. 

Washington,  Mt.,  elevation  of,  200. 

Waste,  avoiding  waste  in  woods,   232, 

405- 
Water,  relation  of,  to  forests,  2. 
Waterilow,  influence  of  forests  on,  145. 
Watershed   protection,    263,    295,    341, 

372. 
Weeks  Law,  140,  376,  380,  385,  393,  397. 
Weevil,  white  pine,  loi,  340. 
West  Indies,  184,  187,  189. 
White  Mountains,   200,  207,  209,  217, 

250,  253,  263,  375. 
White  pine  region,  197,  198,  296,  418. 
Whitewood,  see  Tulip  tree. 
Winthrop,    Governor    of    Connecticut, 

186. 
Woodchucks,  damage  by,  188. 
Workwood  per  cent,  413. 
Wurttemberg,  178. 

Yale  Forest  School,  380. 

Yarding,  239. 

Yield  from  New  England  forests,  408. 

Yield  tables,  iSo,  304,  321,  466. 


Short-title  Catalogue 

OF    THE 

PUBLICATIONS 

OF 

JOHN  WILEY   &  SONS 

New  York 

London:   CHAPMAN    &  HALL,  Limited 


ARRANGED    UNDER   SUBJECTS 


Descriptive  circulars  sent  on  application.     Books  marked  with  an  asterisk  (*)  are 
sold  at  net  prices  only.      All  books  are  bound  in  cloth  unless  otherwise  stated. 


AGRICULTURE— HORTICULTURE— FORESTRY. 

Armsby 's  Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition 8vo,  $4  00 

*  Bowman's  Forest  Physiography 8vo,'  5  00 

Budd  and  Hansen's  American  Horticultural  Manual: 

Part  I.    Propagation,  Culture,  and  Improvement 12mo,  1   50 

Part  II.   Systematic  Pomology 12mo,  1   50 

Elliott's  Engineering  for  Land  Drainage 12mo,  2  00 

Practical  Farm  Drainage.      (Second  Edition,  Rewritten.) 12mo,  1   50 

Fuller's  Water  Supplies  for  the  Farm.      (In  Press.) 

Graves's  Forest  Mensuration 8vo,  4  00 

*  Principles  of  Handling   Woodlands Large  12mo,  1    50 

Green's  Principles  of  American  Forestry 12mo,  1  50 

Grotenfelt's  Principles  of  Modern  Dairy  Practice.      (Woll.) 12mo,  2  00 

*  Hawley  and  Hawes's  Forestry  in  New  England 8vo,  3   50 

*  Herriek's  Denatured  or  Industrial  Alcohol 8vo,  4  00 

*  Kemp  and  Waugh's  Landscape  Gardening.    (New  Edition,  Rewritten.)  12mo,  1   50 

*  McKay  and  Larsen's  Principles  and  Practice  of  Butter-making 8vo,  1   50 

Maynard's  Landscape  Gardening  as  Applied  to  Home  Decoration 12mo,  1   50 

Record's  Identification  of  the  Economic  Woods  of  the  United  States.    (In  Press.) 

Sanderson's  Insects  Injurious  to  Staple  Crops 12mo,  1   50 

*  Insect  Pests  of  Farm,  Garden,  and  Orchard Large  12mo.  .3  00 

*  Schwarz's  Longleaf  Pine  in  Virgin   Forest 12mo,  1   25 

*  Solotaroff's  Field  Book  for  Street-tree  Mapping 12mo,  0  75 

In  lots  of  one  dozen 8  00 

*  Shade  Trees   in   Towns  and   Cities 8vo,  3   00 

Stockbridge's  Rocks  and  Soils 8vo,  2  50 

Winton's  Microscopy  of  Vegetable  Foods 8vo,  7  50 

WoU's  Handbook  for  Farmers  and  Dairymen 16mo,  1   50 

ARCHITECTURE. 

*  Atkinson's  Orientation  of  Buildings  or  Planning  for  Sunlight 8vo,  2  00 

Baldwin's  Steam  Heating  for  Buildings 12mo,  2  50 

Berg's  Buildings  and  Structures  of  American  Railroads .  .4to,  5  00 

1 


Birkmire's  Architectural  Iron  and  Steel 8vo 

Compound  Riveted  Girders  as  Applied  in  Buildings Svo, 

Planning  and  Construction  of  High  Office  Buildings Svo, 

Skeleton  Construction  in  Buildings 8vc 

Briggs's  Modern  American  School  Buildings 8vo 

Byrne's  Inspection  of  Materials  and  Workmanship  Employed  in  Construction, 

16mo 

Carpenter's  Heating  and  Ventilating  of  Buildings 8vo 

*  Corthell's  Allowable  Pressure  on  Deep  Foundations 12mo 

*  Eckel's  Building  Stones  and  Clays Svo 

Freitag's  Architectural  Engineering Svo 

Fire  Prevention  and  Fire  Protection.      (In  Press.) 

Fireproofing  of  Steel  Buildings Svo 

Gerhard's  Guide  to  Sanitary  Inspections.      (Fourth    Edition,    Entirely    Re 

vised  and  Enlarged.) 12mo 

*  Modern  Baths  and  Bath  Houses Svo 

Sanitation  of  Public  Buildings '. 12mo, 

Theatre  Fires  and  Panics 1 2mo 

*  The  Water  Supply,  Sewerage  and  Plumbing  of  Modern  City  Buildings, 

Svo 

Johnson's  Statics  by  Algebraic  and  Graphic  Methods Svo 

Kellaway's  How  to  Lay  Out  Suburban  Home  Grounds 8vo 

Kidder's  Architects'  and  Builders'  Pocket-book 16mo,  mor. 

Merrill's  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration Svo 

Monckton's  Stair-building 4to 

Patton's  Practical  Treatise  on  Foundations Svo 

Peabody's  Naval  Architecture 8vc 

Rice's  Concrete-block  Manufacture Svo 

Richey's  Handbook  for  Superintendents  of  Construction 16mo,  mor 

Building  Foreman's  Pocket  Book  and  Ready  Reference.  .  16mo,  mor, 
*  Building  Mechanics'  Ready  Reference  Series: 

*  Carpenters'  and  Woodworkers'  Edition 16mo,  mor, 

*  Cement  Workers'  and  Plasterers'  Edition 16mo,  mor, 

*  Plumbers',  Steam-Fitters',  and  Tinners'  Edition.  .  .  16nio,  mor, 

*  Stone-  and  Brick-masons'  Edition 16mo,  mor, 

Sabin's  House  Painting 12mo, 

Siebert  and  Biggin's  Modern  Stone-cutting  and  Masonry Svo, 

Snow's  Principal  Species  of  Wood Svo, 

Wait's  Engineering  and  Architectural  Jurisprudence 8v 

Shee 

Law  of  Contracts S v 

Law  of    Operations   Preliminary   to  Construction    in   Engineering  and 

Architecture Svo 

Sheep 

Wilson's  Air  Conditioning 12mo 

Worcester  and  Atkinson's  Small  Hospitals,  Establishment  and  Maintenance 

Suggestions    for    Hospital    Architecture,   with    Plans   tor   a    Small 

Hospital 12mo, 


S3 

50 

2 

00 

3 

50 

3 

00 

4 

00 

3 

00 

4 

00 

1 

2.J 

3 

00 

3 

50 

2 

50 

1 

50 

3 

00 

1 

50 

1 

50 

4 

00 

9 

00 

2 

00 

5 

00 

5 

00 

4 

00 

5 

00 

7 

50 

2 

00 

4 

00 

5 

00 

1 

50 

1 

50 

1 

50 

1 

50 

1 

00 

1 

50 

3 

50 

6 

00 

6 

50 

3 

00 

5 

00 

5 

50 

1 

50 

ARMY   AND    NAVY. 


Bemadou's  Smokeless  Powder,  Nitrocellulose,  and  the  Theory  ol  the  Cellu- 
lose Molecule 1 2mo,  2  50 

Chase's  Art  of  Pattern  Making 12mo,  2  50 

Screw  Propellers  and  Marine  Propulsion S^'o,  3  00 

*  Cloke's  Enlisted  Specialists'  Examiner Svo,  2  00 

*  Gunner's  Examiner Svo,  1  50 

Craig's  Azimuth 4to,  3  50 

Crehore  and  Squier's  Polarizing  Photo-chronograph Svo,  3  00 

*  Davis's  Elements  of  Law Svo,  2  50 

*  Treatise  on  the  Military  Law  of  United  States.' 8vo,  7  00 

*  Dudley's  Military  Law  and  the  Procedure  of  Courts-martial.  .  .Large  12mo,  2  50 
Durand's  Resistance  and  Propulsion  of  Ships Svo,  5  00 

*  Dyer's  Handbook  of  Light  Artillery 12mo,  3  00 

2 


Eissler's  Modern  High  Explosives 8vo  $4  00 

*  Fiebeger's  Text-book  on  Field  Fortification Large  12mo,  2  00 

Hamilton  and  Bond's  The  Gunner's  Catechism 18mo,  1  00 

*  Hoff 's  Elementary  Naval  Tactics 8vo,  1   50 

Ingalls's  Handbook  of  Problems  in  Direct  Fire 8vo,  4  00 

*  Interior  Ballistics Svo.  3  00 

*  Lissak's  Ordnance  and  Gunnery Svo,  6  00 

*  Ludlow's  Logarithmic  and  Trigonometric  Tables Svo,  1   00 

*  Lyons's  Treatise  on  Electromagnetic  Phenomena.  'Vols.  L  and  II. .Svo, each,    6  00 

*  Mahan's  Permanent  Fortifications.      (Mercur.) Svo.  half  mor.  7  50 

Manual  for  Courts-martial 16mo,  mor.  1  50 

*  Mercvir's  Attack  of  Fortified  Places 12mo,  2  00 

*  Elements  of  the  Art  of  "War Svo,  4  00 

Nixon's  Adjutants'  Manual 24mo,  1   00 

Peabody's  Naval  Architecture Svo,  7  50 

*  Phelps's  Practical  Marine  Surveying Svo,  2  50 

Putnam's  Nautical  Charts Svo,  2  00 

Rust's  Ex-meridian  Altitude,  Azimuth  and  Star-Finding  Tables.' Svo,  5  00 

*  Selkirk's  Catechism  of  Manual  of  Guard  Duty 24mo,  0  50 

Sharpe's  Art  of  Subsisting  Armies  in  War I8mo,  mor.  1   50 

*  Taylor's  Speed  and  Power  of  Ships.     2  vols.    Text  Svo,  plates  oblong  4to,  7  50 

*  Tupes  and  Poole's  Manual  of  Bayonet  Exercises  and  Musketry  Fencing. 

24mo,  leather,  0  50 

*  Weaver's  Military  Explosives Svo,  3  00 

*  Woodhull's  Military  Hygiene  for  Officers  of  the  Line Large  12mo,  1   50 

ASSAYING. 

Betts's  Lead  Refining  by  Electrolysis Svo,  4  00 

*Butler's  Handbook  of  Blowpipe  Analysis 16mo,  0  75 

Fletcher's  Practical  Instructions  in  Quantitative  Assaying  with  the  Blowpipe. 

1.6 mo,  mor.  1   50 

Furman  and  Pardoe's  Manual  of  Practical  Assaying Svo,  3  00 

Lodge's  Notes  on  Assaying  and  Metallurgical  Laboratory  Experiments. .Svo,  3  00 

Low's  Technical  Methods  of  Ore  Analysis Svo,  3  00 

Miller's  Cyanide  Process 12mo,  1  00 

Manual  of  Assaying 12mo,  1   00 

Minet's  Production  of  Aluminum  and  its  Industrial  Use.      (Waldo.). ..  12mo,  2   50 

Ricketts  and  Miller's  Notes  on  Assaying Svc ,  3  00 

Robine  and  Lenglen's  Cyanide  Industry.      (Le  Clerc.) Svc,  4  00 

*  Seamon's  Manual  for  Assayers  and  Chemists Large  12mo,  2  50 

Ulke's  Modern  Electrolytic  Copper  Refining Svo,  3  00 

Wilson's  Chlorination  Process 12mo,  1   50 

Cyanide  Processes 1 2mo,  1   50 

ASTRONOMY. 

Comstock's  Field  Astronomy  for  Engineers Svo,  2  50 

Craig's  Azimuth 4to,  3  50 

Crandall's  Text-book  on  Geodesy  and  Least  Squares Svo,  3  00 

Doolittle's  Treatise  on  Practical  Astronomy Svo,  4  00 

Hayford's  Text-book  of  Geodetic  Astronomy Svo,  3  00 

Hosmer's  Azimuth 16mo,  mor.  1   00 

*  Text-book  on  Practical  Astronomy Svo,  2  00 

Merriman's  Elements  of  Precise  Surveying  and  Geodesy „ .  .Svo,  2  50 

*  Michie  and  Harlow's  Practical  Astronomy .Svo,  3  00 

Rust's  Ex-meridian  Altitude,  Azimuth  and  Star- Finding  Tables Svo,  5  00 

*  White's  Elements  of  Theoretical  and  Descriptive  Astronomy 12mo,  2   00 

CHEMISTRY. 

*  Abderhalden's    Physiological  Chemistry   in    Thirty    Lectures.      (liall    and 

Defren.) Svo,  5  00 

*  Abegg's  Theory  of  Electrolytic  Dissociation,      (von  Ende.) 12mo,  I   25 

Alexeyeflf's  General  Principles  of  Organic  Syntheses.      (Matthews.) Svo,  3   00 

Allen's  Tables  for  Iron  Analysis Svo,  3  00 

3 


Armsby's  Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition 8vo,   $4  00 

Arnold's  Compendium  of  Chemistry.      (Mandel.) Lar^e  12mo,  3  50 

Association  of  State  and  National  Food  and  Dairy  Departments,  Kartford 

Meeting.  1906 8vo,  3  00 

Jamestown  Meeting,  1907 8vo,  3  00 

Austen's  Notes  for  Chemical  Students. 12mo,  1   50 

Bernadou's  Smokeless  Powder. — Nitro-cellulose,  and  Theory  of  the  Cellulose 

Molecule 12mo,  2  50 

*  Biltz's  Introduction  to  Inorganic  Chemistry.   (Hall  and  Phelan.).  .  .  12mo,  1   25 

Laboratory  Methods  of  Inorganic  Chemistry.      (Hall  and  Blanchard.) 

8vo,  3  00 

*  Bingham  and  White's  Laboratory  Manual  of  Inorganic  Chemistry.  .12mo.  1   00 

*  Blanchard's  Synthetic  Inorganic  Chemistry 12mo,  1   00 

*  Bottler's  German  and  American  Varnish  Making.     (Sabin.) .  .Large  12mo,  3  50 
Browne's  Handbook  of  Sugar  Analysis.      (In  Press.) 

*  Browning's  Introduction  to  the  Rarer  Elements 8vo,  1   50 

*  Butler's  Handbook  of  Blowpipe  Analysis 16mo,  0  75 

*  Claassen's  Beet-sugar  Manufacture.      (Hall  and  Rolfe.) 8vo,  3  00 

Classen's  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis  by  Electrolysis.      (Boltwood.).8vo,  3  00 

Cohn's  Indicators  and  Test-papers 12mo,  2  00 

Tests  and  Reagents 8vo,  3  00 

Cohnheim's  Functions  of  Enzymes  and  Ferments.      (In  Press.) 

*  Danneel's  Electrochemistry.      (Merriam.) 12mo,  1   25 

Dannerth's  Methods  of  Textile  Chemistry 12mo,  2  00 

Duhem's  Thermodynamics  and  Chemistry.      (Burgess.) 8vo,  4  00 

Effront's  Enzymes  and  their  Applications.      (Prescott.) 8vo,  3  00 

EissJer's  Modern  High  Explosives 8vo,  4  00 

*  Ekeley's  Laboratory  Manual  of  Inorganic  Chemistry 12mo,  1  00 

*  Fischer's  Oedema 8vo,  2  00 

*  Physiology  of  Alimentation Large  12mo,  2  00 

Fletcher's  Practical  Instructions  in  Quantitative  Assaying  with  the  Blowpipe. 

16mo,  mor.  1   50 

Fowler's  Sewage  Works  Analyses 12mo,  2  00 

Fresenius's  Manual  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.      (Wells.) 8vo,  .  5  00 

Manual  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.  Part  I.  Descriptive.  (Wells. )8vo,  3  00 

Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis.      (Cohn.)     2  vols! 8vc,  12  50 

When  Sold  Separately,  Vol.  I.  $6.     Vol.  II,  $8. 

Fuertes's  Water  and  Public  Health 12mo,  1   50 

Furman  and  Pardoe's  Manual  of  Practical  Assaying 8vo,  3  00 

*  Getman's  Exercises  in  Physical  Chemistry 12mo,  2  00 

Gill's  Gas  and  Fuel  Analysis  for  Engineers 12mo,  1   25 

Gooch's  Summary  of  Methods  in  Chemical  Analysis.      (In  Press.) 

*  Gooch  and  Browning's  Outlines  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis. 

Large  12mo,  1   25 

Grotenfelt's  Principles  of  Modern  Dairy  Practice.      (Woll.) 12mo,  2  00 

Groth's  Introduction  to  Chemical  Crystallography  (Marshall) 12mo,  1   25 

*  Hammarsten's  Text-book  of  Physiological  Chemistry.      (Mandel.) 8vo,  4  00 

Hanausek's  Microscopy  of  Technical  Products.      (Winton.) 8vo,  5  00 

*  Haskins  and  Macleod's  Organic  Chemistry 12mo,  2  00 

*  Herrick's  Denatured  or  Industrial  Alcohol 8vo,  4  00 

Hinds's  Inorganic  Chemistry 8vc,  3  00 

*  Laboratory  Manual  for  Students 12mo,  1  00 

*  HoUeman's    Laboratory    Manual    of    Organic    Chemistry    for    Beginners. 

(Walker.) 12mo,  1  00 

Text-book  of  Inorganic  Chemistry.      (Cooper.) 8vo,  2  50 

Text-book  of  Organic  Chemistry.      (Walker  and  Mott.) 8vo,  2  50 

*  (Ekeley)  Laboratory  Manual  to    Accompany    HoUeman's    Text-book    of 

Inorganic  Chemistry 12mo,  1  00 

Holley's  Analysis  of  Paint  and  Varnish  Products.      (In  Press.) 

*  Lead  and  Zinc  Pigments Large  12mo,  3  00 

Hopkins's  Oil-chemists'  Handbook 8vo  3  00 

Jackson's  Directions  for  Laboratory  Work  in  Physiological  Chemistry.  .8vo,     1   25 
Johnson's  Rapid  Methods  for  the  Chemical  Analysis  of  Special  Steels,  Steel- 
making  Alloys  and  Graphite Large  12mo,  3  00 

Landauer's  Spectrum  Analysis.      (Tingle.) 8vo,  3  00 

-Cohn's  Application  of  Some  General  Reactions  to  Investigations  in 

Organic  Chemistry.      (Tingle.) 12mo,  1  00 

4 


Leach's  Inspection  and  Analysis  of    Food  with   Special    Reference  to  State 

Control 8vo,  $7  50 

Lob's  Electrochemistry  of  Organic  Compounds.     (Lorenz.) 8vo,  3  00 

Lodge's  Notes  on  Assaying  and  Metallurgical  Laboratory  Experiments.. 8vo,  3  00 

Low's  Technical  Method  of  Ore  Analysis 8vo,  3  00 

Lowe's  Paint  for  Steel  Structures 12mo,  1  00 

Lunge's  Techno-chemical  Analysis.      (Cohn.) 12mo,  1  00 

*  McKay  and  Larsen's  Principles  and  Practice  of  Butter-making 8vo.  1  50 

Maire's  Modem  Pigments  and  their  Vehicles 12mo,  2  00 

Mandel's  Handbook  for  Bio-chemical  Laboratory 12mo,  1  50 

*  Martin's   Laboratory  Guide  to  Qualitative  Analysis  with  the  Blowpipe 

12mo,  0  60 

Mason's  Examination  of  Water.      (Chemical  and  Bacteriological.). . ; .  .  .  12mo,  1   25 
Water-supply.     (Considered  Principally  from  a  Sanitary  Standpoint.) 

8vo,  4  00 

*  Mathewson's  First  Principles  of  Chemical  Theory 8vo,  1  00 

Matthews's  Laboratory  Manual  of  Dyeing  and  Textile  Chemistry 8vo,  3  50 

Textile  Fibres.     2d  Edition,  Rewritten 8vo,  4  00 

*  Meyer's    Determination    of    Radicles    in    Carbon    Compounds.      (Tingle.) 

Third  Edition 12mo,  1   25 

Miller's  Cyanide  Process 12mo,  1  00 

Manual  of  Assaying 12mo,  1  00 

Minet's  Production  of  Aluminum  and  its  Industrial  Use.      (Waldo.). .  .12mo,  2  50 

*  Mittelstaedt's  Technical  Calculations  for  Sugar  Works.  (Bourbakis.)    12mo,  1   50 

Mixter's  Elementary  Text-book  of  Chemistry 12mo,  1  50 

Morgan's  Elements  of  Physical  Chemistry 12mo,  3  00 

*  Physical  Chemistry  for  Electrical  Engineers 12rno,  1  50 

*  Moore's  Experiments  in  Organic  Chemistry 12mo,  0  50 

*  Outlines  of  Organic  Chemistry 12mo,  1   50 

Morse's  Calculations  used  in  Cane-sugar  Factories 16mo,  mor.  1   50 

*  Muir's  History  of  Chemical  Theories  and  Laws 8vo,  4  00 

MuUiken's  General  Method  for  the  Identification  of  Pure  Organic  Compounds. 

Vol.  I.     Compounds  of  Carbon  with  Hydrogen  and  Oxygen.  Large  8vo,  5  00 

Vol.  II.      Nitrogenous  Compounds.      (In  Preparation.) 

Vol.  III.     The  Commercial  DyestufTs Large  8vo,  5   00 

*  Nelson's  Analysis  of  Drugs  and  Medicines ]2mo,  5  00 

Ostw^ald's  Conversations  on  Chemistry.     Part  One.      (Ramsey.) 12mo,  1  50 

Part  Two.      (Tumbull.) 12mo,  2  00 

*  Introduction  to  Chemistry.      (Hall  and  Williams.) Large  12mo,  1   50 

Owen  and  Standage's  Dyeing  and  Cleaning  of  Textile  Fabrics 12mo,  2  00 

*  Palmer's  Practical  Test  Book  of  Chemistry 12mo,  1  00 

*  Pauli's  Physical  Chemistry  in  the  Service  of  Medicine.     (Fischer.) .  .  12mo,  1   25 
Penfield's  Tables  of  Minerals,  Including  the  Use  of  Minerals  and  Statistics 

of  Domestic  Production 8vc,  1  00 

Pictet's  Alkaloids  and  their  Chemical  Constitution.      (Biddle.) 8vo,  5  00 

Poole's  Calorific  Power  of  Fuels 8vo,  3  00 

Prescott  and  Winslow's  Elements  of  Water  Bacteriology,  with  Special  Refer- 
ence to  Sanitary  Water  Analysis: 12mo,  1   50 

*  Reisig's  Guide  to  Piece-Dyeing 8vo,  25  00 

Richards  and  Woodman's  Air,  Water,  and  Food  from  a  Sanitary  Stand- 
point  8vo.  2  00 

Ricketts  and  Miller's  Notes  on  Assaying 8vo,  3  00 

Rideal's  Disinfection  and  the  Preservation  of  Food. 8vo,  4  00 

Riggs's  Elementary  Manual  for  the  Chemical  Laboratory 8vo,  1   25 

Robine  and  Lenglen's  Cyanide  Industry.      (Le  Clerc.) 8vo,  4  00 

Ruddiman'8  Incompatibilities  in  Prescriptions '.  .  .8vo,  2  00 

Whys  in  Pharmacy : 12mo,  1  00 

*  Ruer's  Elements  of  Metallography.      (Mathewson.) 8vo,  3  00 

Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paint  and  Varnish 8vo,  3  00 

Salkowski's  Physiological  and  Pathological  Chemistry.      (OrndorfT.) 8vo,  2  50 

*  Schimpf's  Essentials  of  Volumetric  Analysis Large  12mo,  1  50 

Manual  of  Volumetric  Analysis.      (Fifth  Edition,  Rewritten) 8vo,  5  00 

*  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis • 8vo,  1   25 

*  Seamen's  Manual  for  Assayers  and  Chemists Large  12mo,  2  50 

Smith's  Lecture  Notes  on  Chemistry  for  Dental  Students .8vo,  2  50 

Spencer's  Handbook  for  Cane  Sugar  Manufacturers 16mo,  mor.  3  00 

Handbook  for  Chemists  of  Beet-sugar  Houses 16mo,  mor.  3  00 

5 


J2 

50 

3 

50 

3 

00 

1 

50 

3 

00 

4 

00 

5 

00 

1 

50 

3 

00 

4 

00 

5 

00 

2 

00 

3 

00 

1 

50 

1 

50 

1 

25 

3 

50 

1 

50 

1 

50 

7 

50 

3 

00 

Stockbridge's  Rocks  and  Soils 8vo, 

Stone's  Practical  Testing  of  Gas  and  Gas  Meters 8vo, 

*  Tillman's  Descriptive  General  Chemistry 8vo, 

*  Elementary  Lessons  in  Heat 8vo, 

Treadwell's  Qualitative  Analysis,      (Hall.) 8vo. 

Quantitative  Analysis,      (Hall.) .8vo, 

Turneaure  and  Russell's  Public  Water-supples 8vo, 

Van  Deventer's  Physical  Chemistry  for  Beginners.      (Boltwood.) 12mo, 

Venable's  Methods  and  Devices  for  Bacterial  Treatment  of  Sewage 8vo, 

Ward  and  Whipple's  Freshwater  Biology.      (In  Press.) 

Ware's  Beet-sugar  Manufacture  and  Refining.     Vol.  1 8vo 

"  "  ■'  ••  Vol.  II 8vo. 

Washington's  Manual  of  the  Chemical  Analysis  of  Rocks 8vo, 

*  Weaver's  Military  Explosives 8vo, 

Wells's  Laboratory  Guide  in  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis 8vo, 

Short  Course  in  Inorganic  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis  for  Engineering 
Students 12mo, 

Text-book  of  Chemical  Arithmetic 12mo, 

Whipple's  Microscopy  of  Drinking-water 8vo, 

Wilson's  Chlorination  Process 12mo, 

Cyanide  Processes 12mo, 

Winton's  Microscopy  of  Vegetable  Foods 8vo, 

Zsigmondy's  CoUcids  and  the  Ultramicroscope.      (Alexander.). .  Large  12mo, 


CIVIL    ENGINEERING. 

BRIDGES    AND    ROOFS.     HYDRAULICS.     MATERIALS    OF    ENGINEER. 
ING.     RAILWAY    ENGINEERING. 

*  American  Civil  Engineers'   Pocket   Book.      (Mansfield   Merriman,  Editor- 

in-chief.)  16mo.  mor.  5  00 

Baker's  Engineers'  Surveying  Instruments 12mo,  3  00 

Bixby's  Graphical  Computing  Table Paper  19'i  X  24^  inches.  0  25 

Breed  and  Hosmer's  Principles  and  Practice  of  Surveying.     Vol.  I.  Elemen- 
tary Surveying 8vo,  3  00 

Vol.  II.      Higher  Surveying 8vo,  2  50 

*  Burr's  Ancient  and  Modern  Engineering  and  the  Isthmian  Canal 8vo,  3  50 

Comstock's  Field  Astronomy  for  Engineers 8vo,  2  50 

*  Corthelt's  Allowable  Pressure  on  Deep  Foundations 12mo,  1   25 

Crandall's  Text-book  on  Geodesy  and  Least  Squares 8vo,  3  00 

Davis's  Elevation  and  Stadia  Tables 8vo,  1  00 

*  Eckel's  Building  Stones  and  Clays 8vo,  3  00 

Elliott's  Engineering  for  Land  Drainage 1 2mo,  2  00 

*  Fiebeger's  Treatise  on  Civil  Engineering 8vo,  5  00 

Plemer's  Phototopographic  Methods  and  Instruments 8vo,  5  00 

Folwell's  Sewerage.      (Designing  and  Maintenance.) 8vo,  3  00 

Frei tag's  Architectural  Engineering 8vo,  3  50 

French  and  Ives's  Stereotomy 8vo,  2  50 

*  Hauch  and  Rice's  Tables  of  Quantities  for  Preliminary  Estimates. .  .  12mo,  1   25 

Hayford's  Textbook  of  Geodetic  Astronomy 8vo,  3  00 

Hering's  Ready  Reference  Tables  (Conversion  Factors.) 16mo,  mor.  2  50 

Hosmer's  Azimuth 16mo,  mor.  1  00 

*  Text-book  on  Practical  Astronomy 8vo,  2  00 

Howe's  Retaining  Walls  for  Earth 12mo,  1  25 

*  Ives's  Adjustments  of  the  Engineer's  Transit  and  Level 16mo,  bds.  0*25 

Ives   and   Hilts's    Problems    in    Surveying,   Railroad   Surveying  and  Geod- 
esy  16mo,  mor.  1   50 

*  Johnson  (J.B.)  and  Smith's  Theory  and  Practice  of  Surveying. Large  12mo,  3  50 
Johnson's  (L.  J.)  Statics  by  Algebraic  and  Graphic  Methods 8vo,  2  00 

*  Kinnicutt,  Winslow  and  Pratt's  Sewage  Disposal 8vo,  3  00 

*  Mahan's  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo,  1   50 

Merriman's  Elements  of  Precise  Surveying  and  Geodesy 8vo,  2  50 

Merriman  and  Brooks's  Handbook  for  Surveyors 16mo,  mor.  2  00 

Nugent's  Plane  Surveying 8vo,  3  50 

Ogden's  Sewer  Construction 8vo,  3  00 

Sewer  Design ,  , 12mo,  2  00 

6 


*  Ogden   and    Cleveland's   Practical    Methods   of  Sewage  Disposal  for  Resi- 

dences, Hotels,  and  Institutions. 8vo,  81   ,50 

Parsons's  Disposal  of  Municipal  Refuse 8vo,  2  00 

Patton's  Treatise  on  Civil  Engineering. 8vo,  half  leather,  7  50 

Reed's  Topographical  Drawing  and  Sketching 4tQ^  5  qq 

Riemer's  Shaft-sinking  under  Difficult  Conditions.  (Corning  and  Peele.).8vo!  3  00 

Siebert  and  Biggin's  Modern  Stone-cutting  and  Masonry gvo,  1   50 

Smith's  Manual  of  Topographical  Drawing.      (McMillan.) gvo,  2  50 

Soper's  Air  and  Ventilation  of  Subways 12mo,  2  50 

*  Tracy's  Exercises  in  Surveying 12ino,  mor.  1   00 

Tracy's  Plane  Surveying 16mo',  mor.  3  00 

Venable's  Garbage  Crematories  in  America gvo,  2  00 

Methods  and  Devices  for  Bacterial  Treatment  of  Sewage 8vo,'  3  00 

Wait's  Engineering  and  Architectural  Jurisprudence 8vo',  6  00 

Sheep!  6  50 

Law  of  Con  tracts gvo,  3  00 

Law  of   Operations   Preliminary   to   Construction   in   Engineering  and 

Architecture 8vo,  5  00 

Sheep,  5  50 

Warren's  Stereotomy — Problems  in  Stone-cutting 8vo,  2  50 

*  Waterbury's   Vest-Pocket   Hand-book   of   Mathematics   for    Engineers. 

2iX5f  inches,  mor.  1   00 

*  Enlarged  Edition,  Including  Tables n:or.  1   50 

■Webb's  Problems  in  the  Use  and  Adjustment  of  Engineering  Instruments. 

16mo,  mor.  1   25 

Wilson's  Topographic,  Trigonometric  and  Geodetic   Surveying Svo.  3  50 

BRIDGES   AND  ROOFS. 

Boiler's  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Construction  of  Iron  Highway  Bridges.. Svo,  2  00 

*  Thames  River  Bridge .'Oblong  paper',  5  00 

Burr  and  Falk's  Design  and  Construction  of  Metallic  Bridges 8vo,  5  00 

Influence  Lines  for  Bridge  and  Roof  Computations 8vo,'  3  00 

Du  Bois's  Mechanics  of  Engineering.     Vol.  II Small  4to,'  10  00 

Foster's  Treatise  on  Wooden  Trestle  Bridges 4to'  5  00 

Fowler's  Ordinary  Foundations gvo]  3  50 

Greene's  Arches  in  Wood,  Iron,  and  Stone 8vo,'  2  60 

Bridge  Trusses "gvo!  2  50 

Roof  Trusses 8vo,  1   25 

Grimm's  Secondary  Stresses  in  Bridge  Trusses 8vo'  2  50 

Heller's  Stresses  in  Structures  and  the  Accompanying  Deformations..  .  .8vo',  3  00 

Howe's  Design  of  Simple  Roof-trusses  in  Wood  and  Steel gvo,'  2  00 

Symmetrical  Masonry  Arches gvo',  2  50 

Treatise  on  Arches gvo,  4  00 

*  Hudson's  Deflections  and  Statically  Indeterminate  Stresses Small  4toi  3  50 

*  Plate  Girder  Design gvo,  1   50 

*  Jacoby's  Structural  Details,  or  Elements  of  Design  in  Heavy  Framing,  8vo!  2  25 
Johnson,  Bryan  and  Turneaure's  Theory  and   Practice  in  the  Designing  of 

Modern  Framed  Structures Small  4to,  10  00 

*  Johnson,  Bryan  and  Turneaure's  Theory  and  Practice  in  the  Designing  of 

Modern  Framed  Structures.     New  Edition.      Part  I gvo,  3  00 

*  Part  II.      New  Edition gvo,'  4  00 

Merriman  and  Jacoby's  Text-book  on  Roofs  and  Bridges: 

Part  I.       Stresses  in  Simple  Trusses gvo,  2  50 

Part  II.    Graphic  Statics gvo,  2  50 

Part  III.     Bridge  Design 8vo,'  2  50 

Part  IV.   Higher  Structures gvo]  2  50 

Ricker's  Design  and  Construction  of  Roofs.      (In  Press.) 

Sondericker's  Graphic   Statics,   with   Applications   to  Trusses,    Beams,   and 

Arches gvo,  2  00 

Waddell's  De  Pontibus,  Pocket-book  for  Bridge  Engineers 16mo,  mor.  2  00 

*  Specifications  for  Steel  Bridges 12mo.  50 

HYDRAULICS. 

Barnes's  Ice  Formation gvo,  3  OO 

Bazin's  Experiments  upon  the  Contraction  of  the  Liquid  Vein  Is.suing  from 

an  Orifice.      (Trautwine.) gvo,  2  00 


Eovey's  Treatise  on  Hydraulics 8vo,  $5  00 

'Church's  Diagrams  of  Mean  Velocity  of  Water  in  Open  Channels. 

Oblong  4to,  paper,  1   50 

Hydraulic  Motors 8vo,  2  00 

Mechanics  of  Fluids  (Being  Part  IV  of  Mechanics  of  Engineering).  .Svo,  3  00 

Coffin's  Graphical  Solution  of  Hydraulic  Problems , .  16ma,  mor.  2  50 

Flather's  Dynamometers,  and  the  Measurement  of  Power 12mo,  3  00 

Folwell's  Water-supply  Engineering Svo,  4  00 

Frizell's  Water-power Svo,  5  00 

Fuertes's  Water  and  Public  Health 12mo,  1   50 

Water-filtration  Works 12mo,  2  50 

Ganguillet  and  Kutter's  General  Formula  for  the  Uniform  Flow  of  Water  in 

Rivers  and  Other  Channels.      (Hering  and  Trautwine.) Svo.  4  00 

Hazen's  Clean  Water  and  How  to  Get  It Large  12mo,  1   50 

Filtration  of  Public  Water-supplies Svo.  3  00 

Hazelhurst's  Towers  and  Tanks  for  Water-works Svo  2  50 

Herschel's  1 15  Experiments  on  the  Carrying  Capacity  of  Large,  Riveted,  Metal 

Conduits Svo,  2  00 

Hoyt  and  Grover's  River  Discharge Svo,  2  00 

Hubbard    and    Kiersted's   Water-works    Management    and    Maintenance. 

Svo,  4  00 

*  Lyndon's    Development   and    Electrical    Distribution    of    Water    Power. 

Svo,  3  00 
Mason's  Water-supply.      (Considered    Principally    from    a    Sanitary    Stand- 
point.)   Svo,  4  00 

.*  Merriman's  Treatise  on  Hydraulics.     9th  Edition,  Rewritten Svo,  4  00 

*  Molitor's  Hydraulics  of  Rivers,  Weirs  and  Sluices Svo,  2  00 

*  Morrison  and  Brodie's  High  Masonry  Dam  Design Svo,  1   50 

*  Richards's  Laboratory  Notes  on  Industrial  Water  Analysis Svo,  50 

Schuyler's   Reservoirs  for   Irrigation,   Water-power,   and   Domestic   Water- 
supply.     Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged Large  Svo,  6  00 

*  Thomas  and  Watt's  Improvement  of  Rivers 4to,  6  00 

Turneaure  and  Russell's  Public  Water-supplies Svo,  5  00 

*  Wegmann's  Design  and  Construction  of  Dams.     6th  Ed.,  enlarged...  .4to,  6  00 

Water-Supply  of  the  City  of  New  York  from  165S  to  1895 4to,  10  00 

Whipple's  Value  of  Pure  Water Large  12rao.  1   00 

Williams  and  Hazen's  Hydraulic  Tables Svo,  1   50 

Wilson's  Irrigation  Engineering Svo,  4  03 

Wood's  Turbines.... Svo,  2  50 


MATERIALS    OF    ENGINEERING. 

Baker's  Roads  and  Pavements Svo,  5  00 

Treatise  on  Masonry  Construction Svo,  5  00 

Black's  United  States  Public  Works Oblong  4to,  5  00 

*  Blanchard    and    Drowne's    Highway    Engineering,    as    Presented    at    the 

Second  International  Road  Congress,  Brussels,  1910. Svo,  2  00 

Bleininger's  Manufacture  of  Hydraulic  Cement.      (In  Preparation.) 

*  Bottler's  German  and  American  Varnish  Making.      (Sabin.)  .  .Large  12mo,  3  50 

Burr's  Elasticity  and  Resistance  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering Svo,  7  50 

Byrne's  Highway  Construction Svo,  5  00 

Inspection  of  the  Materials  and  Workmanship  Employed  in  Construction. 

16mo,     3  00 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering Svo,     6  00 

Mechanics  of  Solids  (Being  Parts  I,  II,  III  of  Mechanics  of  Engineer- 
ing  Svo,     4   50 

Du  Bois's  Mechanics  of  Engineering. 

Vol.     I.  Kinematics,  Statics.  Kinetics Small  4to,     7  50 

Vol.  II.  The  Stresses  in  Framed  Structures,  Strength  of  Materials  and 

Theory  of  Flexures Small  4to,   10  00 

*  Eckel's  Building  Stones  and   Clays 8vo,     3  00 

*  Cements,  Limes,  and  Plasters Svo,  6  00 

Fowler's  Ordinary  Foundations 8vo,  3  50 

*  Greene's  Structural  Mechanics Svo,  2  50 

HoUey's  Analysis  of  Paint  and  Varnish  Products.      (In  Press.) 

*  Lead  and  Zinc  Pigments Large  12mo,     3  00 

s 


*  Hubbard's  Dust   Preventives  and   Road  Binders Svo,  $3  00 

Johnson's  (C.  M.)  Rapid  Methods  for  the  Chemical  Analysis  of  Special  Steels. 

Steel-making  Alloys  and  Graphite Large  12mo,  3  00 

Johnson's  (J.  B.)  Materials  of  Construction Large  Svo,  6  00 

Keep's  Cast  Iron gvo!  2  50 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  7  50 

Lowe's  Paints  for  Steel  Structures 12mo,  1   00 

Maire's  Modem  Pigments  and  their  Vehicles 12mo,  2  00 

*  Martin's  Text  Book  on  Mechanics.     Vol.  I.    Statics 12mo,  1   25 

*  Vol.  IL     Kinematics  and  Kinetics 12mo.  1  50 

*  Vol.  III.   Mechanics  of  Materials ]2mo,  1   .50 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics 8vo,  4  00 

Merrill's  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration 8vo.  5  00 

Merriman's  Mechanics  of  Materials .■ Svo,  5  00 

*  Strength  of  Materials 12mo,  1   00 

Metcalf's  Steel.     A  Manual  for  Steel-users .\2mo,  2  00 

Morrison's  Highway  Engineering c  = « .  = .  .Svo,  2  50 

*  Murdock's  Strength  of  Materials 12mo,  2  00 

Patton's  Practical  Treatise  on  Foundations Svo.  5  00 

Rice's  Concrete  Block  Manufacture Svo,  2  00 

Richardson's  Modern  Asphalt  Pavement Svo,  3  00 

Richey's  Building  Foreman's  Pocket  Book  and  Ready  Reference.  16mo,  mor.  5  00 

*  Cement  Workers'  and  Plasterers'  Edition  (Building  Mechanics'  Ready 

Reference  Series) 16mo,  mor.  1   50 

Handbook  for  Superintendents  of  Construction 16mo,  mor.  4  00 

*  Stone    and     Brick     Masons'     Edition    (Building     Mechanics'    Ready 

Reference  Series) 16mo,  mor.  1   50 

*  Ries's  Clays :   Their  Occurrence,  Properties,  and  Uses Svo,  5  GO 

*  Ries  and  Leighton's  History  of  the  Clay-working  Industry  of  the  United 

States Svo.  2  50 

Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paint  and  Varnish Svo,  3  00 

*  Smith's  Strength  of  Material 12mo,  1   25 

Snow's  Principal  Species  of  Wood Svo,  3  50 

Spalding's  Hydraulic  Cement 12mo,  2  00 

Text-book  on  Roads  and  Pavements ' 12mo,  2  00 

*  Taylor  and  Thompson's  Concrete  Costs Small  Svo,  5  00 

*  Extracts  on  Reinforced  Concrete  Design Svo,  2  00 

Treatise  on  Concrete,  Plain  and  Reinforced Svo,  5  00 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering.      In  Three  Parts Svo,  8  00 

Part  I.     Non-metallic  Materials  of  Engineering  and  Metallurgy..  .  .Svo,  2  00 

Part  II.     Iron  and  Steel Svo,  3  50 

Part  III.    A  Treatise  on  Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  their 

Constituents Svo,  2  50 

Tillson's  Street  Pavements  and  Paving  Materials Svo,  4  00 

Turneaure  and   Maurer's   Principles  of   Reinforced  Concrete  Construction. 

Second  Edition.  Revised  and  Enlarged Svo,  3   50 

Waterbury's  Cement  Laboratory  Manual r2mo,  1   00 

*  Laboratory  Manual  for  Testing  Materials  of  Construction 12mo,  1   50 

Wood's  (De  V.)  Treatise  on  the  Resistance  of  Materials,  and  an  Appendix  on 

the  Preservation  of  Timber Svo,  2  00 

Wood's  (M.  P.)  Rustless  Coatings:  Corrosion  and  Electrolysis  of  Iron  and 

Steel Svo,  4  00 

RAILWAY    ENGINEERING. 

Andrews's  Handbook  for  Street  Railway  Engineers 3X5  inches,  mor.  1   25 

Berg's  Buildings  and  Structures  of  American  Railroads 4to,  5  00 

Brooks's  Handbook  of  Street  Railroad  Location 16mo,  mor.  1   50 

*  Burt's  Railway  Station  Service 12mo,  2  00 

Butts's  Civil  Engineer's  Field-book 16mo,  mor.  2  50 

Crandall's  Railway  and  Other  Earthwork  Tables Svo,  1   50 

Crandall  and  Barnes's  Railroad  Surveying 16mo,  mor.  2  00 

*  Crockett's  Methods  for  Earthwork  Computations Svo,  1   50 

Dredge's  History  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad.   (1879) Paper,  5  00 

Fisher's  Table  of  Cubic  Yards Cardboard,  25 

*  Gilbert  Wightman  and  Saunders's  Subways  and  Tunnels  of  New  York.  Svo,  4  00 
Godwin's  Railroad  Engineers'  Field-book  and  Explorers'  Guide. .  16mo,  mor.  2  50 


Hudson's  Tables  for  Calculating  the  Cubic  Contents  of  Excavations  and  Rm- 

bankments Hwo,  $1  08 

Ives  and  Hilts's  Probleras  in  Surveying,  Railroad  Surveying  auu  Geodesy 

Ifimo,  mor.  1   50 

Molitor  and  Beard's  Manual  for  Resident  Engineers 16mo,  1   00 

Nagle's  Field  Manual  for  Railroad  Engineers 16mo,  mor.  3  00 

*  Orrock's  Railroad  Structures  and  Estimates 8vo,  3  00 

Philbrick's  Field  Manual  for  Engineers 16mo,  mor.  3  GO 

Raymond's  Railroad  Field  Geometry 16mo,  mor.  2  00 

Elements  of  Railroad  Engineering 8vo,  3  50 

Railroad  Engineer  Is  Field  Book.      (In  Preparation.) 

Roberts'  Track  Formulae  and  Tables 16mo,  mor.  3  00 

Searles's  Field  Engineering 16mo,  mor.  3  00 

Railroad  Spiral 16mo,  mor.  1   50 

Taylor's  Prismoidal  Formulje  and  Earthwork 8vo,  1   50 

Webb's  Economics  of  Railroad  Construction Large  12mo,  2  50 

Railroad  Construction 16mo,  mor.  5  00 

Wellington's  Economic  Theory  of  the  Location  of  Railways Large  12mo,  5  00 

Wilson's  Elements  of  Railroad-Track  and  Construction 12mo,  2  00 

DRAWING. 

Barr  and  Wood's  Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo,     2  50 

*  Bartlett's  Mechanical  Drawing Svo,     3  00 

*  "  "  "  Abridged  Ed Svo,      150 

*  Bartlett  and  Johnson's  Engineering  Descriptive  Geometry Svo,      1   50 

Blessing  and  Darling's  Descriptive  Geometry.      (In  Press.) 

Elements  of  Drawing.      (In  Press.) 

Coolidge's  Manual  of  Drawing Svo,  paper,      1   00 

Coolidge  and  Freeman's  Elements  of  General  Drafting  for  Mechanical  Engi- 
neers  Oblong  4to, 

Durley's  Kinematics  of  Machines Svo, 

Emch's  Introduction  to  Projective  Geometry  and  its  Application Svo, 

Hill's  Text-book  on  Shades  and  Shadows,  and  Perspective Svo, 

Jamison's  Advanced  Mechanical  Drawing Svo, 

Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing Svo, 

Jones's  Machine  Design : 

Part  I.     Kinematics  of  Machinery Svo, 

Part  II.  Form,  Strength,  and  Proportions  of  Parts Svo, 

*  Kimball  and  Barr's  Machine  Design Svo, 

MacCord's  Elements  of  Descriptive  Geometry Svo, 

Kinematics ;   or.  Practical  Mechanism Svo, 

Mechanical  Drawing 4to, 

Velocity  Diagrams Svo, 

McLeod's  Descriptive  Geometry Large  12mo, 

*  Mahan's  Descriptive  Geometry  and  Stone-cutting Svo, 

Industrial  Drawing.      (Thompson.) Svo, 

Moyer's  Descriptive  Geometry Svo, 

Reed's  Topographical  Drawing  and  Sketching 4to, 

*  Reid's  Mechanical  Drawing.      (Elementary  and  Advanced.) Svo, 

Text-book  of  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Elementary  Machine  Design.. Svo, 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism ,.  » Svo, 

Schwamb  and  Merrill's  Elements  of  Mechanism Svo, 

Smith  (A.  W.)  and  Marx's  Machine  Design , Svo, 

Smith's  (R.  S.)  Manual  of  Topographical  Drawing.      (McMillan.) Svo, 

*  Titsworth's  Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing Oblong  Svo, 

Tracy  and  North's  Descriptive  Geometry.      (In  Press.) 

Warren's  Elements  of  Descriptive  Geometry,  Shadows,  and  Perspective.  .Svo, 

.Elements  of  Machine  Construction  and  Drawing Svo, 

Elements  of  Plane  and  Solid  Free-hand  Geometrical  Drawing.  .  .  .  12mo, 

General  Problems  of  Shades  and  Shadows Svo, 

Manual  of  Elementary  Problems  in  the  Linear  Perspective  of  Forms  and 

Shadow 12mo, 

Manual  of  Elementary  Projection  Drawing 12mo, 

Plane  Problems  in  Elementary  Geometry 1 2mo, 

Weisbach's     Kinematics    and     Power    of    Transmission.      (Hermann     and 

Klein.) Svo, 

Wilson's  (H.  M.)  Topographic  Surveying Svo, 

10 


2 

50 

4 

00 

2 

50 

2 

00 

2 

00 

2 

50 

1 

50 

3 

00 

3 

00 

3 

00 

5 

00 

4 

00 

1 

50 

1 

50 

1 

50 

3 

50 

2 

00 

5 

00 

2 

00 

3 

00 

3 

00 

3 

00 

3 

00 

2 

50 

1 

25 

3 

50 

7 

50 

1 

00 

3 

00 

1 

00 

1 

50 

1 

25 

5 

00 

3 

50 

*  Wilson's  (V.  T.)  Descriptive  Geometry gvo     jj  gg 

Free-hand  Lettering gyp'      j  qq 

Free-hand  Perspective 8  vo,'     2  50 

WooJf's  Elementary  Course  in  Descriptive  Geometry Large  8vo'     3  00 

ELECTRICITY    AND    PHYSICS. 

*  Abegg's  Theory  of  Electrolytic  Dissociation,      (von  Ende.1 12mo, 

Andrews's  Hand-book  for  Street  Railway  Engineers 3X5  inches   mor' 

Anthony  and   Ball's   Lecture-notes  on   the  Theory  of  Electrical   Measure- 
ments   j2mo 

Anthony  and   Brackett's   Text-book  of  Physics.      (Magie.) Large  12mo! 

Benjamin's  History  of  Electricity ."gvo' 

Betts's  Lead  Refining  and  Electrolysis .....'.  .8vo' 

*  Burgess  and  Le  Chatelier's   Measurement  of  High   Temperatures.      Third 

Edition g^^^ 

Classen's  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis  by  Electrolysis.  '   (Boitwood.).8vo,' 

*  Collins's  Manual  of  Wireless  Telegraphy  and  Telephony 12mo! 

Crehore  and  Squier's  Polarizing  Photo-chronograph 8vo,' 

*  Danneel's  Electrochemistry.      (Merriam.) 12moi 

Dawson's  "Engineering"  and  Electric  Traction  Pocket-book.  .  .  .  16mo,  inor.' 
Dolezalek's  Theory  of  the  Lead  Accumulator  (Storage  Battery) .      (von  Ende. ) 

Duhem's  Thermodynamics  and  Chemistry.      (Burgess.) ."svo,' 

Flather's  Dynamometers,  and  the  Measurement  of  Power 12mo! 

*  Getman's  Introduction  to  Physical  Science 12mo' 

Gilbert's  De  Magnete.      (Mottelay  ) '.'.'.  ."svo! 

*  Hanchett's  Alternating  Currents 12mo' 

Hering's  Ready  Reference  Tables  (Conversion  Factors) ICmo,  mor.' 

*  Hobart  and  Ellis's  High-speed  Dynamo  Electric  Machinery .'  .8vo^ 

Holman's  Precision  of  Measurements gyo' 

Telescope-Mirror-scale  Method,  Adjustments,  and  Tests Large  8voi 

*  Hutchinson's    High-Efficiency    Electrical    Illuminants   and    Illumination.' 

Large  12mo, 

*  Jones's  Electric  Ignition '  g^^ 

Karapetofif's  Experimental  Electrical  Engineering- 

*Vol.     I g^. 

*Vol.  II. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  ^''.['.'.'.'.'..Svo 

Kinzbrunner's  Testing  of  Continuous-current  Machines .8vo,' 

*  Koch's  Mathematics  of    Applied    Electricity Small  8vo,' 

Landauer's  Spectrum  Analysis.      (Tingle.) gvo' 

*  Lauffer's  Electrical    Injuries lOmo' 

Lob's  Electrochemistry  of  Organic  Compounds.      (Lorenz.). ...!.... ....  .8vo! 

*  Lyndon's  Development  and  Electrical  Distribution  of  Water  Power.  .8vo! 

*  Lyons's  Treatise  on  Electromagnetic  Phenomena.  Vols,  I.  and  II.  8vo,  each| 

*  Michie's  Elements  of  Wave  Motion  Relating  to  Sound  and  Light.  .  .  '.  .8vo', 

*  Morgan's  Physical  Chemistry  for  Electrical  Engineers 12mo,' 

*  Norris's  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Electrical  Engineering .~8vo! 

Norris  and  Dennison's  Course  of  Problems  on  the  Electrical  Characteristics  of 

Circuits  and  Machines.      (In  Press.) 

*  Parshall  and  Hobart's  Electric  Machine  Design 4to.   half   mor, 

Reagan's  Locomotives:  Simple,  Compound,  and  Electric.      New  Edition. 
J,  „         ,        ,    .^,  Large  12mo, 

*  Rosenberg  s  Electrical  Engineering.     (Haldane  Gee— Kinzbrunner.) .  .8vo. 

*  Ryan's  Design  of  Electrical  Machinery:  * 

*  Vol.  I.    Direct  Current  Dynamos gvo^ 

Vol.  II.   Alternating  Current  Transformers .  .  .8vo,' 

Vol.  III.   Alternators,    Synchronous    Motors,    and    Rotary    Converters, 

(In  Preparation.) 

Ryan,  Norris,  and  Hoxie's  Text  Book  of  Electrical  Machinery 8vo, 

Schapper's  Laboratory  Guide  for  Students  in  Physical  Chemistry. ....  12mo,' 

*  Tillman's  Elementary  Lessons  in  Heat gvo' 

*  Timbie's  Elements  of  Electricity Large  12mo', 

*  Answers  to  Problems  in  Elements  of  Electricity 12mo,  Paper 

Tory  and  Pitcher's  Manual  of  Laboratory  Physics Large  12mo, 

Ulke's  Modern  Electrolytic  Copper  Refining gvo' 

*  Waters's  Commercial  Dynamo  Design gvo 

11 


1  25 

1  25 

1  00 

3  GO 

3  00 

4  00 

4  00 

3  00 

1  50 

3  00 

1  25 

5  00 

2  50 

4  00 

3  00 

1  50 

2  50 

1  00 

2  50 

6  00 

2  00 

0  75 

2  50 

4  00 

3  50 

2  50 

2  00 

3  00 

3  00 

0  50 

3  00 

3  00 

6  00 

4  00 

1  50 

2  50 

3 

50 

2 

00 

1 

50 

' 

50 

2 

50 

1 

00 

1 

50 

2 

00 

0 

25 

2 

00 

o 

00 

2 

00 

LAW. 

*  Brennan's    Hand-book   of   Useful    Legal    Information    for    Business    Men. 

16mo,  mor. 

*  Davis's  Elements  of  Law 8vo, 

*  Treatise  on  the  Military  Law  of  United  States 8vo,  • 

*  Dudley's  Military  Law  and  the  Procedure  of  Courts-martial. .  Large   12mo, 

Manual  for  Courts-martial 16mo,  mor. 

Wait's  Engineering  and  Architectural  Jurisprudence 8vo, 

Sheep, 

Law  of  Contracts 8vo, 

Law  of  Operations  Preliminary  to  Construction  in  Engineering  and 
Architecture 8  vo, 

Sheep, 

MATHEMATICS. 

Baker's  Elliptic  Functions 8vo, 

Briggs's  Elements  of  Plane  Analytic  Geometry.      (Bocher.) 12mo, 

*  Buchanan's  Plane  and  Spherical  Trigonometry 8vo, 

Byerly's  Harmonic  Functions 8vo, 

Chandler's  Elements  of  the  Infinitesimal  Calculus 12mo, 

*  Coffin's  Vector  Analysis 12mo, 

Compton's  Manual  of  Logarithmic  Computations 12mo, 

*  Dickson's  College  Algebra Large  12mo, 

*  Introduction  to  the  Theory  of  Algebraic  Equations Large  12mo, 

Emch's  Introduction  to  Projective  Geometry  and  its  Application 8vo, 

Fiske's  Functions  of  a  Complex  Variable 8vo, 

Halsted's  Elementary  Synthetic  Geometry 8vo, 

Elements  of  Geometry 8vo, 

*  Rational  Geometry 12mo, 

Synthetic  Projective  Geometry 8vo, 

*  Hancock's  Lectures  on  the  Theory  of  Elliptic  Functions 8vo, 

Hyde's  Grassmann's  Space  Analysis 8vo. 

*  Johnson's  (J.  B.)  Three-place  Logarithmic  Tables:  Vest-pocket  size,  paper, 

*  100  copies, 

*  Mounted  on  heavy  cardboard,  8  X  10  inches, 

*  10  copies, 

Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Abridged  Editions  of  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus. 

Large  12mo,  1  vol. 

Curve  Tracing  in  Cartesian  Co-ordinates 12mo, 

Differential  Equations 8vo, 

Elementary  Treatise  on  Diflferential  Calculus Large  12mo, 

Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Integral  Calculus Large  12mo, 

*  Theoretical  Mechanics 12mo, 

Theory  of  Errors  and  the  Method  of  Least  Squares 12mo. 

Treatise  on  Differential  Calculus Large  12mo, 

Treatise  on  the  Integral  Calculus Large  12mo, 

Treatise  on  Ordinary  and  Partial  Differential  Equations.  .  .Large  12mo, 

Karapetoff's  Engineering  Applications  of  Higher  Mathematics: 

*  Part  I.   Problems  on  Machine  Design Large  12mo. 

*  Koch's  Mathematics  of  Applied    Electricity 8vo, 

Laplace's  Philosophical  Essay  on  Probabilities.  (Truscott  and  Emory.)  .  12mo, 

*  Le  Messurier's  Key  to  Professor  W.  W.  Johnson's  Differential  Equations. 

Small  Svo, 

*  Ludlow's  Logarithmic  and  Trigonometric  Tables 8vo, 

*  Ludlow  and  Bass's  Elements  of  Trigonometry  and  Logarithmic  and  Other 

Tables 8vo, 

*  Trigonometry  and  Tables  published  separately Each, 

Macfarlane's  Vector  Analysis  and  Quaternions Svo, 

McMahon's  Hyperbolic  Functions Svo, 

Manning's  Irrational  Numbers  and  their  Representation  by  Sequences  and 

Series 12mo. 

*  Martin's  Text  Book  on  Mechanics.     Vol.  I.  Statics 12mo, 

*  Vol.  II.      Kinematics  and  Kinetics 12mo. 

*  Vol.  III.   Mechanics  of  Materials l2mo, 

12 


S5  00 

2  50 

.  7  00 

2  50 

1  50 

6  00 

6  50 

3  00 

5  00 

5  50 

1  50 

1  00 

1  00 

1  00 

2  00 

2  50 

1  50 

1  50 

1  25 

2  50 

1  00 

1  50 

1  75 

1  50 

1  00 

5  00 

1  00 

0  15 

5  00 

0  25 

2  00 

,  2  50 

1  00 

1  00 

1  50 

1  50 

3  00 

1  50 

3  00 

3  00 

3  50 

0  75 

3  00 

,  2  00 

1  75 

1  00 

3  00 

2  00 

1  00 

1  00 

1  25 

1  25 

1  50 

1  50 

Mathematical    Monographs.     Edited   by    Mansfield    Merriman    and    Robert 

S.  Woodward Octavo,  each  $1  00 

No.  1.  History  of  Modem  Mathematics,  by  David  Eugene  Smith. 
No^  2.  Synthetic  Projective  Geometry,  by  George  Bruce  Halsted. 
No  3.  Determinants,  by  Laenas  Gifford  Weld.  No.  4.  Hyper- 
bolic Functions,  by  James  McMahon.  No.  5.  Harmonic  Func- 
tions by  William  E.  Byerly.  No.  6.  Grassmann's  Space  Analysis. 
by  Edward  W.  Hyde.  No.  7.  Probability  and  Theory  of  Errors, 
by  Robert  S.  Woodward.  No.  8.  Vector  Analysis  and  Quaternions, 
by  Alexander  Macfarlane.  No.  9.  Differential  Equations,  by 
William  Woolsey  Johnson.  No.  10.  The  Solution  of  Equations, 
by  Mansfield  Merriman.  No.  11.  Functions  of  a  Complex  Variable, 
by  Thomas  S.  Fiske. 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics 8vo, 

Merriman's  Method  of  Least  Squares 8vo, 

Solution  of  Equations 8vo, 

*  Moritz's  Elements  of  Plane  Trigonometry 8vo. 

Rice  and  Johnson's  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus.     2  vols,  in  one. 

Large  12mo, 

Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Differential  Calculus Large  12mo, 

Smith's  Historv  of  Modern  Mathematics ;^°' 

*  Veblen  and  Lennes's  Introduction  to  the  Real  Infinitesimal  Analysis  of  One 


Variable. 


.8vo, 


*  Waterbury's  Vest  Pocket  Hand-book  of  Mathematics  for  Engineers. 

2iX5f  inches,  mor. 

*  Enlarged  Edition,  Including  Tables mor. 

Weld's  Determinants Svo, 

Wood's  Elements  of  Co-ordinate  Geometry 8vo, 

Woodward's  Probability  and  Theory  of  Errors 8vo, 

MECHANICAL   ENGINEERING. 

MATERIALS    OF    ENGINEERING.  STEAM-ENGINES    AND    BOILERS. 


4 

00 

2 

00 

1 

00 

00 

^ 

50 

•A 

00 

1 

00 

2 

00 

1 

00 

1 

50 

1 

00 

2 

00 

1 

00 

Bacon's  Forge  Practice. 


12mo,  150 

Baldwin's  Steam  Heating  for  Buildings 12mo,  2  50 

Barr  and  Wood's  Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo,  2  50 

*  Bartlett's  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  3  00 

*  ••                     •■                   '■        Abridged  Ed 8vo,  150 

*  Bartlett  and  Johnson's  Engineering  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo,  1   50 

*  Burr's  Ancient  and  Modern  Engineering  and  the  Isthmian  Canal 8vo,  3  50 

Carpenter's  Heating  and  Ventilating  Buildings 8vo.  4  00 

*  Carpenter  and  Diederichs's  Experimental  Engineering 8vo,  6  00 

*  Clerk's  The  Gas.  Petrol  and  Oil  Engine 8vo,  4  00 

Compton's  First  Lessons  in  Metal  Working 12mo,  1   50 

Compton  and  De  Groodt's  Speed  Lathe 12mo,  1  50 

Coolidge's  Manual  of  Drawing 8vo,  paper,  1  00 

Coolidge  and  Freeman's  Elements  of  General  Drafting  for  Mechanical  En- 
gineers  Oblong  4to,  2  50 

Cromwell's  Treatise  on  Belts  and  Pulleys 12mo.  1  50 

Treatise  on  Toothed  Gearing 12mo,  1  50 

Dingey's  Machinery  Pattern  Making 12mo,  2  00 

Durley's  Kinematics  of  Machines 8vo,  4  00 

Flanders's  Gear-cutting  Machinery Large  12mo,  3  00 

Flather's  Dynamometers  and  the  Measurement  of  Power 12mo,  3  00 

Rope  Driving l^mo,  2  00 

Gill's  Gas  and  Fuel  Analysis  for  Engineers 12mo,  1   25 

Goss's  Locomotive  Sparks Svo,  2  00 

*  Greene's   Pumping  Machinery 8vo,  4  t)i) 

Hering's  Ready  Reference  Tables  (Conversion  Factors^ 16mo,  mor.  2  50 

'  Hobart  and  Ellis's  High  Speed  Dynamo  Electric  Machinery 8vo,  6  00 

Hutton's  Gas  Engine- 


.Svo.     5  00 
2  00 


Jamison's  Advanced  Mechanical  Drawing Svo, 

Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing Svo,  2  50 

Jones's  Gas  Engine S^'O-  4  00 

Machine  Design: 

Part  I.      Kinematics  of  Machinery Svo,  1  50 

Part  II.     Form,  Strength,  and  Proportions  of  Parts Svo,  3  00 


*  Kaup's  Machine  Shop  Practice Large  12mo 

*  Kent's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket-Book 16mo,  mor. 

Kerr's  Power  and  Power  Transmission 8vo, 

*  Kimball  and  Barr's  Machine  Design 8vo, 

*  King's  Elements  of  the   Mechanics  of   Materials  and  of  Power  of  Trans- 

mission   8vo, 

*  Lanza's  Dynamics  of  Machinery Svo, 

Leonard's  Machine  Shop  Tools  and  Methods Svo, 

*  Levin's  Gas  Engine 8vo, 

*  Lorenz's  Modern  Refrigerating  Machinery.   (Pope,  Haven,  and  Dean)..8vo, 
MacCord's  Kinematics;  or.  Practical  Mechanism Svo,- 

Mechanical  Drawing 4to, 

Velocity  Diagrams Svo, 

MacFarland's  Standard  Reduction  Factors  for  Gases Svo, 

Mahan's  Industrial  Drawing.      (Thompson.) Svo. 

Mehrtens's  Gas  Engine  Theory  and  Design Large  12mo, 

Miller,  Berry,  and  Riley's  Problems  in  Thermodynamics  and  Heat  Engineer- 
ing   Svo,  paper, 

Oberg's  Handbook  of  Small  Tools Large  12mo. 

*  Parshall  and  Hobart's  Electric  Machine  Design.  Small  4to,  half  leather, 

*  Peele's  Compressed  Air  Plant.     Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. Svo, 

*  Perkins's  Introduction  to  General  Thermodynamics 12mo. 

Poole's  Calorific  Power  of  Fueis Svo, 

*  Porter's  Engineering  Reminiscences,  1855  to  18S2 Svo, 

Randall's  Treatise  on  Heat.      (In  Press.) 

*  Reid's  Mechanical  Drawing.      (Elementary  and  Advanced.) Svo, 

Text-book  of  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Elementary  Machine  Design. Svo, 

Richards's  Compressed  Air 12mo, 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism Svo, 

Schwamb  and  Merrill's  Elements  of  Mechanism Svo, 

Smith  (A.  W.)  and  Marx's  Machine  Design Svo, 

Smith's  (O.)  Press- working  of  Metals Svo, 

Sorel's  Carbureting  and  Combustion  in  Alcohol  Engines.      (Woodward  and 

Preston.) Large  12mo, 

Stone's  Practical  Testing  of  Gas  and  Gas  Meters Svo, 

Thurston's  Animal  as  a  Machine  and  Prime  Motor,  and  the  Laws  of  Energetics. 

12mo, 

Treatise  on  Friction  and  Lost  Work  in  Machinery  and  Mill  Work.  .  .Svo, 

*  Tillson's  Complete  Automobile  Instructor 16mo, 

*  Titsworth's  Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing Oblong  Svo, 

Warren's  Elements  of  Machine  Construction  and  Drawing Svo, 

*  Waterbury's  Vest  Pocket  Hand-book  of  Mathematics  for  Engineers. 

2j  X5f  inches,  mor. 

*  Enlarged  Edition,  Including  Tables mor. 

Weisbach's    Kinematics    and    the    Power    of    Transmission.      (Herrmann — 

Klein.) Svo, 

Machinery  of  Transmission  and  Governors.      (Hermann — Klein.).  .Svo, 
Wood's  Turbines Svo, 

MATERIALS   OF   ENGINEERING. 

Burr's  Elasticity  and  Resistance  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering Svo, 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering Svo, 

Mechanics  of  Solids  (Being  Parts  I,  II,  III  of  Mechanics  of  Engineering). 

Svo, 

*  Greene's  Structural  Mechanics Svo, 

HoUey's  Analysis  of  Paint  and  Varnish  Products.      (In  Press.) 

*  Lead  and  Zinc  Pigments Large  12mo, 

Johnson's  (C.  M.)  Rapid    Methods    for    the    Chemical    Analysis    of    Special 

Steels,  Steel-Making  Alloys  and  Graphite Large  12mo, 

Johnson's  (J.  B.)  Materials  of  Construction Svo, 

keep's  Cast  Iron Svo. 

*  King's  Elements  of  the   Mechanics  of   Materials  and  of  Power  of  Trans- 

mission   Svo, 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics Svo, 

Lowe's  Paints  for  Steel  Structures 12mo, 

Maire's  Modern  Pigments  and  their  Vehicles 12mo, 

14 


$1 

25 

5 

00 

2 

00 

3 

00 

2 

50 

2 

50 

4 

00 

4 

00 

4 

00 

5 

00 

4 

00 

1 

50 

I 

50 

3 

50 

2 

50 

0 

75 

2 

50 

12 

50 

3 

50 

1 

50 

3 

00 

3 

00 

o 

00 

3 

00 

1 

50 

3 

00 

3 

00 

3 

00 

3 

00 

3 

00 

3 

50 

1 

00 

3 

00 

1 

50 

1 

25 

7 

50 

1 

00 

1 

50 

5 

00 

5 

00 

- 

50 

^ 

50 

6 

00 

4 

50 

-' 

50 

3 

00 

3 

00 

6 

00 

2 

50 

-, 

50 

7 

50 

1 

00 

2 

00 

«4 

00 

6 

00 

] 

00 

2 

00 

2 

00 

3 

00 

J 

00 

X 

25 

8 

00 

2 

00 

3 

50 

2 

50 

1 

50 

3 

00 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics gvo, 

Merriman's  Mechanics  of  Materials Svo, 

*  Strength  of  Materials 12mo. 

Metcalf's  Steel.      A  Manual  for  Steel-users 12mo. 

*  Murdock's  Strength  of  Materials 12mo, 

Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paint  and  Varnish Svo. 

Smith's  (A.  W.)  Materials  of  Machines ]2mo. 

*  Smith's  (H.  E.)  Strength  of  Material 12mo." 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering 3  vols.,  Svo. 

Part  I.     Non-metallic  Materials  of  Engineering Svo, 

Part  II.     Iron  and  Steel Svo, 

Part  III.     A  Treatise  on  Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  their 
Constituents Svo, 

*  Waterbury's  Laboratory  Manual  for  Testing  Materials  of  Construction. 

12mo, 

Wood's  (De  V.)  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics Svo. 

Treatise  on    the    Resistance    of    Materials    and    an    Appendix    on    the 

Preservation  of  Timber Svo.     2  00 

Wo:d's  (M.  P.)   Rustless  Coatings'    Corrosion  and  Electrolysis  of  Iron  and 

Steel Svo,     4  00 

STEAM-ENGINES    AND    BOILERS. 

Berry's  Temperature-entropy   Diagram.      Third    Edition    Revised   and    En- 
larged  I2mo.  2  50 

Carnot's  Reflections  on  the  Motive  Power  of  Heat.      (Thurston.) 12mo,  1  50 

Chase's  Art  of  Pattern  Making 12mo,  2  50 

Creighton's  Steam-engine  and  other  Heat  Motors Svo.  5  00 

Dawson's  "Engineering"  and  Electiic  Traction  Pocket-book.  ..  .  ICmo,  mor.  5  00 

*  Gebhardt's  Steam  Power  Plant  Engineering Svo,  6  00 

Goss's  Locomotive  Performance Svo,  5  00 

Hemenway's  Indicator  Practice  and  Steam-engine  Economy r2mo,  2  00 

Hirshfeld  and  Barnard's  Heat  Power  Engineering.      (In  Press.) 

Hutton's  Heat  and  Heat-engines Svo,  5  00 

Mechanical  Engineering  of  Power  Plants Svo,  5  00 

Kent's  Steam  Boiler  Economy    Svo,  4  00 

Kneass's  Practice  and  Theory  of  the  Injector Svo,  1  50 

MacCord's  Slide-valves Svo,  2  00 

Meyer's  Modern  Locomotive  Construction 4to.  10  00 

Miller,  Berry,  and  Riley's  Problems  in  Thermodynamics Svo,  paper,  0  75 

Mover's  Steam  Turbine Svo,  4  00 

Peabody's  Manual  of  the  Steam-engine  Indicator 12mo,  1   50 

Tables  of  the  Properties  of  Steam  and  Other  Vapors  and  Temperature- 
Entropy  Table Svo.  1   00 

Thermodynamics  of  the  Steam-engine  and  Other  Heat-engines.  .  .  .Svo,  5  00 

*  Thermodynamics  of  the  Steam  Turbine Svo,  3  00 

Valve-gears  for  Steam-engines Svo,  2  50 

Peabody  and  Miller's  Steam-boilers Svo,  4  00 

*  Perkins's  Introduction  to  General  Thermodynamics 12mo.  1   50 

Pupin's  Thermodynamics  of  Reversible  Cycles  in  Gases  and  Saturated  Vapors. 

(Osterberg.) 12mo,  1   25 

Reagan's  Locomotives:  Simple,  Compound,  and  Electric.     New  Edition. 

Large  12mo,  3  50 

Sinclair's  Locomotive  Engine  Running  and  Management 12mo,  2  00 

Smart's  Handbook  of  Engineering  Laboratory  Practice 12mo,  2  50 

Snow's  Steam-boiler  Practice Svo,  3  00 

Spangler's  Notes  on  Thermodynamics 12mo,  1  00 

Valve-gears Svo,  2  50 

Spangler,  Greene,  and  Marshall's  Elements  of  Steam-engineering Svo,  3  00 

Thomas's  Steam-turbines Svo,  4  00 

Thurston's  Handbook  of  Engine  and  Boiler  Trials,  and  the  Use  of  the  Indi- 
cator and  the  Prony  Brake Svo,  5  00 

Manual  of  Steam-boilers,  their  Designs.  Construction,  and  Operation  Svo,  5  00 

Manual  of   the  Steam-engine 2  vols.,   Svo,  10  00 

Part  I.      History,  Structure,  and  Theory   Svo.  6  00 

Part  II.      Design,  Construction,  and  Operation Svo,  6  00 

15 


Wehrenfennig's  Analysis  and  Softening  of  Boiler  Feed-water.     (Patterson  ) 

8vo,  $4  00 

Weisbach's  Heat,  Steam,  and  Steam-engines.      (Du  Bois.) 8vo,  5  00 

Whitham's  Steam-engine  Design. 8vo.  5  00 

Wood's  Thermodynamics,  Heat  Motors,  and  Refrigerating  Machines.  .  .Svo,  4  00 

MECHANICS    PURE   AND    APPLIED. 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering 8vo, 

Mechanics  of  Fluids  (Being  Part  IV  of  Mechanics  of  Engineering).  .  Svo, 

*  Mechanics  of  Internal  Work , Svo, 

Mechanics  of  Solids  (Being  Parts  I,  II,  III  of  Mechanics  of  Engineering). 

Svo, 

Notes  and  Examples  in  Mechanics Svo, 

Dana's  Text-book  of  Elementary  Mechanics  for  Colleges  and  Schools  .12mo, 
Du  Bois's  Elementary  Principles  of  Mechanicb: 

Vol.     I.      Kinematics Svo, 

Vol.  II.     Statics Svo, 

Mechanics  of  Engineering.     Vol.     I Small  4to, 

Vol.  II Small  4to, 

*  Greene's  Structural  Mechanics Svo, 

*  Hartmann's  Elementary  Mechanics  for  Engineering  Students 12mo, 

James's  Kinematics  of  a  Point  and  the  Rational  Mechanics  of  a  Particle. 

Large  12mo. 

*  Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Theoretical  Mechanics.  .  .  . 12mo, 

*  King's  Elements  of  the  Mechanics  of   Materials  and  of  Power  of  Trans- 

mission   'Svo, 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics Svo, 

*  Martin's  Text  Book  on  Mechanics,  Vol.  I,  Statics 12mo, 

*  Vol.  II.      Kinematics  and  Kinetics 12mo, 

*  Vol.  III.    Mechanics  of  Materials 12mo, 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics Svo, 

*  Merriman's  Elements  of  Mechanics 12mo, 

Mechanics  of  Materials .■ Svo, 

*  Michie's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics Svo, 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism Svo, 

Sanborn's  Mechanics  Problems Large  12mo, 

Schwamb  and  Merrill's  Elements  of  Mechanism Svo, 

Wood's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics Svo, 

Principles  of  Elementary  Mechanics 12mo, 

MEDICAL. 

*  Abderhalden's  Physiological    Chemistry    in    Thirty    Lectures.      (Hall    and 

Defren.) Svo,  5  00 

von  Behring's  .Suppression  of  Tuberculosis.      (Bolduan.) 12mo,  1  00 

*  Bolduan's  Immune  Sera 12mo,  1  50 

Bordet's  Studies  in  Immunity.      (Gay.) Svo,  6  00 

*  Chapin's  The  Sources  and  Modes  of  Infection Large  12mo,  3  00 

Davenport's  .Statistical  Methods  with  Special  Reference  to  Biological  Varia- 
tions  16mo,  mor.  1  50 

Ehrlich's  Collected  Studies  on  Immunity.      (Bolduan.) Svo,  6  00 

*  Fischer's  Nephritis Large  12mo,  2  50 

*  Oedema Svo,  2  00 

*  Physiology  of  Alimentation Large  12mo,  2  00 

*  de  Fursac's  Manual  of  Psychiatry.     (Rosanoff  and  Collins.) ...  Large  12mo,  2  50 

*  Hammarsten's  Text-book  on  Physiological  Chemistry.  (Mandel.)..  .  .8vo,  4  00 
Jackson's  Directions  for  Laboratory  Work  in  Physiological  Chemistry .  .Svo,  1  25 
Lassar-Cohn's  Praxis  of  Urinary  Analysis.      (Lorenz.) 12mo,  1  00 

*  Laufifer's  Electrical  Injuries. 16mo,  0  50 

Mandel's  Hand-book  for  the  Bio-Chemical  Laboratory 12mo.  1  50 

*  Nelson's  Analysis  of  Drugs  and  Medicines 12mo,  3  00 

*  Pauli's  Physical  Chemistry  in  the  Service  of  Medicine.      (Fischer.) .  .12mo,  1  25 

*  Pozzi-Escot's  Toxins  and  Venoms  and  their  Antibodies.      (Cohn.).  .  12mo,  1  00 

Rostoski's  Serum  Diagnosis.      (Bolduan.) 12mo,  1  00 

Ruddiman's  Incompatibilities  in  Prescriptions Svo,  2  00 

Whys  in  Pharmacy 12mo,      1  00 

Salkowski's  Physiological  and  Pathological  Chemistry.      (Omdorff.)  ....8vo,     2  50 

16 


6 

00 

3 

00 

1 

50 

4 

50 

2 

00 

1 

50 

3 

50 

4 

00 

7 

50 

10 

00 

2 

50 

1 

25 

2 

00 

3 

00 

2 

50 

7 

50 

1 

25 

1 

50 

1 

50 

4 

00 

1 

00 

5 

00 

4 

00 

3 

00 

1 

50 

3 

00 

3 

00 

1 

25 

*  Satterlee's  Outlines  of  Human  Embryology 12mo,  $1   25 

Smith's  Lecture  Notes  on  Chemistry  for  Dental  Students 8vo,  2  50 

*  Whipple's  Tyhpoid  Fever Large  12mo,  3  00 

*  WoodhuU's  Military  Hygiene  for  Officers  of  the  Line Large  12mo,  1   50 

*  Personal  Hygiene 12mo,  1   00 

Worcester  and  Atkinson's  Small  Hospitals  Establishment  and  Maintenance, 
and  Suggestions  for  Hospi;al  Architecture,  with  Plans  for  a  Small 

Hospital 12mo,  1   25 

METALLURGY. 

Betts's  Lead  Refining  by  Electrolysis 8vo,  4  00 

Bolland's  Encyclopedia  of  Founding  and  Dictionary  of  Foundry  Terms  used 

in  the  Practice  of  Moulding 12mo,  3  00 

Iron  Founder 12mo,  2  50 

Supplement 12mo,  2  50 

*  Borchers's  Metallurgy.      (Hall  and  Hayward.) 8vo,  3  00 

*  Burgess  and  Le  Chatelier's  Measurement  of  High  Temperatures.     Third 

Edition 8vo,  4  00 

Douglas's  Untechnical  Addresses  on  Technical  Subjects 12mo,  1   00 

Goesel's  Minerals  and  Metals:  A  Reference  Book 16mo,  mor.  3  00 

*  Iles's  Lead-smelting 12mo,  2  50 

Johnson's    Rapid    Methods    for    the   Chemical    Analysis    of    Special    Steels, 

Steel-making  Alloys  and  Graphite Large  12mo,  3  00 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,  2  50 

Mstcalf's  Steel.      A  Manual  for  Steel-users 12mo,  2  00 

Minet's  Production  of  Aluminum  and  its  Industrial  Use.      (Waldo.).  .  12mo,  2  50 

*  Palmer's  Foundry  Practice Large  12mo,  2  00 

*  Price  and  Meade's  Technical  Analysis  of  Brass 12mo.  2  00 

*  Ruer's  Elements  of  Metallography.      (Mathewson.) 8vo,  3  00 

Smith's  Materials  of  Machines 12mo,  1   00 

Tate  and  Stone's  Foundry  Practice 12mo,  2  00 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering.      In  Three  Parts , 8vo,  8  00 

Part  I.       Non-metallic  Materials  of  Engineering,  see  Civil  Engineering, 
page  9. 

Part  II.     Iron  and  Steel 8vo,  3  50 

Part  III.  A  Treatise  on  Brasses,   Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  their 

Constituents 8vo,  2  50 

XJlke's  Modern  Electrolytic  Copper  Refining 8vo,  3  00 

West's  American  Foundry  Practice 12mo,  2  50 

Moulders'  Text  Book 12mo.  2  50 


MINERALOGY. 

*  Browning's  Introduction  to  the  Rarer  Elements 8vo, 

Brush's  Manual  of  Determinative  Mineralogy.      (Penfield.) 8vo, 

Butler's  Pocket  Hand-book  of  Minerals 16mo,  mor. 

Chester's  Catalogue  of  Minerals 8vo,  paper. 

Cloth, 

*  Crane's  Gold  and  Silver , 8vo, 

Dana's  First  Appendix  to  Dana's  New  "System  of  Mineralogy".  .Large  8vo, 
Dana's  Second  Appendix  to  Dana's  New  "  System  of  Mineralogy." 

Large  8vo, 

Manual  of  Mineralogy  and  Petrography 12mo, 

Minerals  and  How  to  Study  Them 12mo, 

System  of  Mineralogy Large  8vo,   half  leather. 

Text-book  of  Mineralogy 8vo, 

Douglas's  Untechnical  Addresses  on  Technical  Subjects 12mo, 

Eakle's  Mineral  Tables 8vo, 

*  Eckel's  Building  Stones  and  Clays 8vo, 

Goesel's  Minerals  and  Metals:  A  Reference  Book 16mo,  mor. 

*  Groth's  The  Optical  Properties  of  Crystals.      (Jackson.) 8vo, 

Groth's  Introduction  to  Chemical  Crystallography  (Marshall) 12mo, 

*  Hayes's  Handbook  for  Field  Geologists 16mo,  mor. 

Iddings's  Igneous  Rocks 8vo, 

Rock  Minerals 8vo, 

17 


1  50 

4  00 

3  00 

1  00 

1  25 

5  00 

1  00 

1  50 

2  00 

1  50 

12  50 

4  00 

1  00 

1  25 

3  00 

3  00 

3  50 

1  25 

1  50 

5  00 

5  00 

Johannsen's  Determination  of  Rock-forming  Minerals  in  Thin  Sections.  8vo, 

With  Thumb  Index  $5  00 

*  Martin's  Laboratory     Guide    to    Qualitative    Analysis    with    the     Blow- 

pipe     12mo,  0  60 

Merrill's  Non-metallic  Minerals:  Their  Occurrence  and  Uses 8vo,  4  00 

Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration 8vo,  5  00 

*  Penfield's  Notes  on  Determinative  Mineralogy  and  Record  of  Minert.'  Tests. 

8vo,  paper,  0  50 
Tables  of   Minerals,    Including  the  Use  of   Minerals  and   Statistics  of 

Domestic  Production 8vo,  1   00 

*  Pirsson's  Rocks  and  Rock  Minerals 12mo.  2  50 

*  Richards's  Synopsis  of  Mineral  Characters 12mo,  mor.  1   25 

*  Ries's  Clays:  Their  Occurrence,  Properties  and  Uses 8vo,  5  00 

*  Ries  and   Leighton's  History  of  the  Clay-working  industry  of  the  United 

States 8vo,  2  50 

*  Rowe's  Practical  Mineralogy  Simplified 12mo,  1   25 

*  Tillman's  Text-book  of  Important  Minerals  and  Rocks 8vo,  2  00 

Washington's  Manual  of  the  Chemical  Analysis  of  Rocks 8vo,  2  00 

MINING. 

*  Beard's  Mine  Gases  and  Explosions Large  12mo,     3  00 

*  Crane's  Gold  and  Silver 8vo,     5  00 

*  Index  of  Mining  Engineering  Literature 8vo,     4  00 

*  8vo,  mor.  5  00 

*  Ore  Mining  Methods 8vo,  3  00 

*  Dana  and  Saunders's  Rock  Drilling 8vo,  4  00 

Douglas's  Untechnical  Addresses  on  Technical  Subjects 12mo,  1   00 

Eissler's  Modern  High  Explosives 8vo.  4  00 

*=  Gilbert  Wightman  and  Saunders's  Subways  and  Tunnels  of  New  York.  8vo,  4  00 

Goesel's  Minerals  and  Metals:  A  Reference  Book 16mo,  mor.  3  00 

Ihlseng's  Manual  of  Mining 8vo,  5  00 

*  Iles's  Lead  Smelting , 12mo,  2  50 

*  Peele's  Compressed  Air  Plant 8vo,  3  50 

Riemer'sShaft  Sinking  Under  Difficult  Conditions.      (Corning  and  Peele.)8vo,  3  00 

*  Weaver's  Military  Explosives 8vo,  3  00 

Wilson's  Hydraulic  and  Placer  Mining.     2d  edition,  rewritten I2mo,  2  50 

Treatise  on  Practical  and  Theoretical  Mine  Ventilation 12mo,      1   25 

SANITARY    SCIENCE. 

Association  of  State  and  National  Food  and  Dairy  Departments,  Hartford 

Meeting,  1906 8vo. 

Jamestown  Meeting,  1907 8vo, 

*  Bashore's  Outlines  of  Practical  Sanitation 12mo, 

Sanitation  of  a  Country  House 12mo, 

Sanitation  of  Recreation  Camps  and  Parks 12mo, 

*  Chapin's  The  Sources  and  Modes  of  Infection Large  12mo, 

Folwell's  Sewerage.      (Designing,  Construction,  and  Maintenance.) 8vo, 

Water-supply  Engineering 8vo, 

Fowler's  Sewage  Works  Analyses 12mo, 

Fuertes's  Water-filtration  Works 12mo, 

Water  and  Public  Health 12mo, 

Gerhard's  Guide  to  Sanitary  Inspections 12mo, 

*  Modern  Baths  and  Bath  Houses 8vo, 

Sanitation  of  Public  Buildings 12mo, 

*  The  Water  Supply,  Sewerage,  and  Plumbing  of  Modem  City  Buildings. 

8vo, 

Hazen's  Clean  Water  and  How  to  Get  It Large  12mo, 

Filtration  of  Public  Water-supplies 8vo, 

*  Kinnicutt,  Winslow  and  Pratt's  Sewage  Disposal 8vo, 

Leach's  Inspection  and  Analysis  of  Food  with  Special  Reference  to  State 

Control 8vo, 

Mason's  Examination  of  Water.      (Chemical  and  Bacteriological) 12mo, 

Water-supply.      (Considered  principally  from  a  Sanitary  Standpoint). 

8vo, 

*  Mast's  Light  and  the  Behavior  of  Organisms Large  12mo, 

18 


3 

00 

3 

00 

1 

25 

1 

00 

1 

00 

3 

00 

3 

00 

4 

00 

2 

00 

2 

50 

1 

50 

1 

50 

3 

00 

1 

50 

4 

00 

1 

50 

3 

00 

3 

00 

7 

50 

1 

25 

4 

00 

2 

50 

*  Merriman's  Elements  of  Sanitary  Engineering 8vo,  $2  00 

Ogden's  Sewer  Construction 8vo,  3  00 

Sewer  Design 12nio,  2  00 

*  Ogden  and    Cleveland's  Practical   Methods  of  Sewage   Disposal  for  Res- 

idences, Hotels   and  Institutions 8vo,  1   50 

Parsons's  Disposal  of  Municipal  Refuse 8vo,  2  GO 

Prescott  and  Winslow's  Elements  of  Water  Bacteriology,  with  Special  Refer- 
ence to  Sanitary  Water  Analysis 12mo,  1   50 

*  Price's  Handbook  on  Sanitation 12mo,  1   50 

Richards's  Conservation  by  Sanitation 8vo.  2  50 

Cost  of  Cleanness 12mo,  1  00 

Cost  of  Food.      A  Study  in  Dietaries 12mo,  1  00 

Cost  of  Living  as  Modified  by  Sanitary  Science 12mo,  1  00 

Cost  of  Shelter 12mo.  1  00 

Richards  and   Woodman's  Air,   Water,  and  Food  from  a  Sanitary  Stand- 
point  8vo.  2  00 

*  Richey's     Plumbers',     Steam-fitters',    and     Tinners'     Edition     (Building 

Mechanics'  Ready  Reference  Series) 16mo,  mor.  1   50 

Rideal's  Disinfection  and  the  Preservation  of  Food 8vo,  4  00 

Soper's  Air  and  Ventilation  of  Subways 12mo,  2  50 

Turneaure  and  Russell's  Public  Water-supplies 8vo.  5  00 

Venable's  Garbage  Crematories  in  America 8vo,  2  00 

Method  and  Devices  for  Bacterial  Treatment  of  Sewage 8vo,  3  00 

Ward  and  Whipple's  Freshwater  Biology.      (In  Press.) 

Whipple's  Microscopy  of  Drinking-water 8vo,  3  50 

*  Typhoid  Fever Large  12mo,  3  00 

Value  of  Pure  Water Large  1 2mo,  1   00 

Winslow's  Systematic  Relationship  of  the  Coccaceae Large  12mo,  2  50 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

*  Burt's  Railway  Station  Service 12mo,  2  00 

*  Chapin's  How  to  Enamel 12mo,  1  00 

Emmons's  Geological  Guide-book  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Excursion  of  the 

International  Congress  of  Geologists Large  8vo,  1   50 

Ferrel's  Popular  Treatise  on  the  Winds ' Svo,  4  00 

Fitzgerald's  Boston  Machinist 18mo,  1  00 

*  Fritz,  Autobiography  of  John Svo,  2  00 

Gannett's  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  World 24mo,  0  75 

Haines's  American  Railway  Management 12mo,  2  50 

Hanausek's  The  Microscopy  of  Technical  Products.      (Winton) Svo,  5  00 

Jacobs's  Betterment    Briefs.      A    Collection    of    Published    Papers    on    Or- 
ganized Industrial  Efficiency Svo,  3  50 

Metcalfe's  Cost  of  Manufactures,  and  the  Administration  of  Workshops.. Svo,  5  00 

*  Parkhurst's  Applied  Methods  of  Scientific  Management Svo,  2  00 

Putnam's  Nautical  Charts Svo,  2  00 

Ricketts's  History  of  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute  1824-1894. 

Large  12mo,  3  00 

*  Rotch  and  Palmer's  Charts  of  the  Atmosphere  for  Aeronauts  and  Aviators. 

Oblong  4to,  2  00 

Rotherham's  Emphasised  New  Testament Large  Svo,  2  00 

Rust's  Ex-Meridian  Altitude,  Azimuth  and  Star-finding  Tables., Svo,  5  00 

Standage's  Decoration  of  Wood,  Glass,  Metal,  etc 12mo,  2  00 

Westermaier's  Compendium  of  General  Botany.      (Schneider) Svo,  2  00 

Winslow's  Elements  of  Applied  Microscopy 12mo,  1   50 

HEBREW   AND    CHALDEE    TEXT-BOOKS. 

Gesenius's  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon  to  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures. 

(Tregelles.) Small  4to,  half  mor,  5  00 

Green's  Elementary  Hebrew  Grammar 12mo.  1  25 


19 


u 


i 


♦J-i 


^?  n  1  f*"",'-"^*  ^^*T^  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 


